oralternativelyasopposingauthorityintheconductofhumanrelationsproponentsofanarchismknownasanarchistsadvocatestatelesssocietiesastheonlymoralformofsocialorganization
therearemanytypesandtraditionsofanarchismnotallofwhicharemutuallyexclusiveanarchistschoolsofthoughtcandifferfundamentallysupportinganythingfromextremeindividualismtocompletecollectivismanarchismisoftenconsideredtobearadicalleftwingideologyandmuchofanarchisteconomicsandanarchistlegalphilosophyreflectantistatistinterpretationsofcommunismcollectivismsyndicalismorparticipatoryeconomicshoweveranarchismhasalwaysincludedanindividualiststrainsupportingamarketeconomyandprivatepropertyormorallyunrestrainedegoismsomeindividualistanarchistsarealsosocialistsorcommunistswhilesomeanarchocommunistsarealsoindividualistsoregoistswhilesomeanarchocommunistsarealsoindividualists
anarchismasasocialmovementhasregularlyenduredfluctuationsinpopularitythecentraltendencyofanarchismasamasssocialmovementhasbeenrepresentedbyanarchocommunismandanarchosyndicalismwithindividualistanarchismbeingprimarilyaliteraryphenomenonwhichneverthelessdidhaveanimpactonthebiggercurrentsandindividualistsalsoparticipatedinlargeanarchistorganizationsmostanarchistsopposeallformsofaggressionsupportingselfdefenseornonviolenceanarchopacifismwhileothershavesupportedtheuseofsomecoercivemeasuresincludingviolentrevolutionandpropagandaofthedeedonthepathtoananarchistsociety
thetermanarchismderivesfromthegreekἄναρχοςanarchosmeaningwithoutrulersfromtheprefixἀνanwithoutἀρχήarchêsovereigntyrealmmagistracyισμόςismosfromthesuffixιζεινizeinizingthereissomeambiguitywiththeuseofthetermslibertarianismandlibertarianinwritingsaboutanarchismsincethe1890sfromfrancethetermlibertarianismhasoftenbeenusedasasynonymforanarchismandwasusedalmostexclusivelyinthissenseuntilthe1950sintheunitedstatesitsuseasasynonymisstillcommonoutsidetheunitedstates
thetermanarchistfirstenteredtheenglishlanguagein1642duringtheenglishcivilwarasatermofabuseusedbyroyalistsagainsttheirroundheadopponentsinoppositiontojacobincentralisationofpowerseeingrevolutionarygovernmentasoxymoronicbytheturnofthe19thcenturytheenglishwordanarchismhadlostitsinitialnegativeconnotation
modernanarchismsprangfromthesecularorreligiousthoughtoftheenlightenmentparticularlyjeanjacquesrousseausargumentsforthemoralcentralityoffreedomfromthisclimatewilliamgodwindevelopedwhatmanyconsiderthefirstexpressionofmodernanarchistthoughtbenjamintuckerinsteadcreditsjosiahwarrenanamericanwhopromotedstatelessandvoluntarycommunitieswhereallgoodsandserviceswereprivatewithbeingthefirstmantoexpoundandformulatethedoctrinenowknownasanarchismthefirsttodescribehimselfasananarchistwaspierrejosephproudhonafrenchphilosopherandpoliticianwhichledsometocallhimthefounderofmodernanarchisttheory
theanarchocommunistjosephdéjacquewasthefirstpersontodescribehimselfaslibertarianunlikeproudhonhearguedthatitisnottheproductofhisorherlaborthattheworkerhasarighttobuttothesatisfactionofhisorherneedswhatevermaybetheirnature
jesusissometimesconsideredthefirstanarchistinthechristiananarchisttraditiongeorgeslechartierwrotethatthetruefounderofanarchywasjesuschristandthefirstanarchistsocietywasthatoftheapostlessuchadistinctionreverberatessubversivereligiousconceptionsliketheaforementionedseeminglyanarchistictaoistteachingsandthatofotherantiauthoritarianreligioustraditionscreatingacomplexrelationshipregardingthequestionastowhetherornotanarchismandreligionarecompatiblethisisexemplifiedwhentheglorificationofthestateisviewedasaformofsinfulidolatry
ineuropeharshreactionfollowedtherevolutionsof1848duringwhichtencountrieshadexperiencedbrieforlongtermsocialupheavalasgroupscarriedoutnationalistuprisingsaftermostoftheseattemptsatsystematicchangeendedinfailureconservativeelementstookadvantageofthedividedgroupsofsocialistsanarchistsliberalsandnationaliststopreventfurtherrevoltin1864theinternationalworkingmensassociationsometimescalledthefirstinternationaluniteddiverserevolutionarycurrentsincludingfrenchfollowersofproudhonblanquistsphiladelphesenglishtradeunionistssocialistsandsocialdemocrats
duetoitslinkstoactiveworkersmovementstheinternationalbecameasignificantorganizationkarlmarxbecamealeadingfigureintheinternationalandamemberofitsgeneralcouncilproudhonsfollowersthemutualistsopposedmarxsstatesocialismadvocatingpoliticalabstentionismandsmallpropertyholdings
in1868followingtheirunsuccessfulparticipationintheleagueofpeaceandfreedomlpfrussianrevolutionarymikhailbakuninandhiscollectivistanarchistassociatesjoinedthefirstinternationalwhichhaddecidednottogetinvolvedwiththelpftheyalliedthemselveswiththefederalistsocialistsectionsoftheinternationalwhoadvocatedtherevolutionaryoverthrowofthestateandthecollectivizationofproperty
atfirstthecollectivistsworkedwiththemarxiststopushthefirstinternationalinamorerevolutionarysocialistdirectionsubsequentlytheinternationalbecamepolarisedintotwocampswithmarxandbakuninastheirrespectivefigureheadsbakunincharacterisedmarxsideasascentralistandpredictedthatifamarxistpartycametopoweritsleaderswouldsimplytaketheplaceoftherulingclasstheyhadfoughtagainst
in1872theconflictclimaxedwithafinalsplitbetweenthetwogroupsatthehaguecongresswherebakuninandjamesguillaumewereexpelledfromtheinternationalanditsheadquartersweretransferredtonewyorkinresponsethefederalistsectionsformedtheirowninternationalatthestimiercongressadoptingarevolutionaryanarchistprogram
theantiauthoritariansectionsofthefirstinternationalweretheprecursorsoftheanarchosyndicalistsseekingtoreplacetheprivilegeandauthorityofthestatewiththefreeandspontaneousorganizationoflaborin1886thefederationoforganizedtradesandlaborunionsfotluoftheunitedstatesandcanadaunanimouslyset1may1886asthedatebywhichtheeighthourworkdaywouldbecomestandard
inresponseunionsacrosstheunitedstatespreparedageneralstrikeinsupportoftheeventthenextday4mayanarchistsstagedarallyatchicagoshaymarketsquareabombwasthrownbyanunknownpartyneartheconclusionoftherallykillinganofficerintheensuingpanicpoliceopenedfireonthecrowdandeachothersevenpoliceofficersandatleastfourworkerswerekilledeightanarchistsdirectlyandindirectlyrelatedtotheorganisersoftherallywerearrestedandchargedwiththemurderofthedeceasedofficerthemenbecameinternationalpoliticalcelebritiesamongthelabourmovementfourofthemenwereexecutedandafifthcommittedsuicidepriortohisownexecutiontheincidentbecameknownasthehaymarketaffairandwasasetbackforthelabourmovementandthestrugglefortheeighthourdayin1890asecondattemptthistimeinternationalinscopetoorganisefortheeighthourdaywasmadetheeventalsohadthesecondarypurposeofmemorializingworkerskilledasaresultofthehaymarketaffairalthoughithadinitiallybeenconceivedasaonceoffeventbythefollowingyearthecelebrationofinternationalworkersdayonmaydayhadbecomefirmlyestablishedasaninternationalworkersholidayin1907theinternationalanarchistcongressofamsterdamgathereddelegatesfrom14differentcountriesamongwhichimportantfiguresoftheanarchistmovementincludingerricomalatestapierremonatteluigifabbribenoîtbroutchouxemmagoldmanrudolfrockerandchristiaancornelissenvariousthemesweretreatedduringthecongressinparticularconcerningtheorganisationoftheanarchistmovementpopulareducationissuesthegeneralstrikeorantimilitarismacentraldebateconcernedtherelationbetweenanarchismandsyndicalismortradeunionismmalatestaandmonattewereinparticulardisagreementthemselvesonthisissueasthelatterthoughtthatsyndicalismwasrevolutionaryandwouldcreatetheconditionsofasocialrevolutionwhilemalatestadidnotconsidersyndicalismbyitselfsufficienthethoughtthatthetradeunionmovementwasreformistandevenconservativecitingasessentiallybourgeoisandantiworkerthephenomenonofprofessionalunionofficialsmalatestawarnedthatthesyndicalistsaimswereinperpetuatingsyndicalismitselfwhereasanarchistsmustalwayshaveanarchyastheirendandconsequentlyrefrainfromcommittingtoanyparticularmethodofachievingit
thespanishworkersfederationin1881wasthefirstmajoranarchosyndicalistmovementanarchisttradeunionfederationswereofspecialimportanceinspainthemostsuccessfulwastheconfederaciónnacionaldeltrabajonationalconfederationoflabourcntfoundedin1910beforethe1940sthecntwasthemajorforceinspanishworkingclasspoliticsattracting158millionmembersatonepointandplayingamajorroleinthespanishcivilwar
howeverassoonas1887importantfiguresintheanarchistmovementdistancedthemselvesfromsuchindividualactspeterkropotkinthuswrotethatyearinlerévoltéthatastructurebasedoncenturiesofhistorycannotbedestroyedwithafewkilosofdynamiteavarietyofanarchistsadvocatedtheabandonmentofthesesortsoftacticsinfavorofcollectiverevolutionaryactionforexamplethroughthetradeunionmovementtheanarchosyndicalistfernandpelloutierarguedin1895forrenewedanarchistinvolvementinthelabormovementonthebasisthatanarchismcoulddoverywellwithouttheindividualdynamiter
staterepressionincludingtheinfamous1894frenchloisscélératesoftheanarchistandlabormovementsfollowingthefewsuccessfulbombingsandassassinationsmayhavecontributedtotheabandonmentofthesekindsoftacticsalthoughreciprocallystaterepressioninthefirstplacemayhaveplayedaroleintheseisolatedactsthedismembermentofthefrenchsocialistmovementintomanygroupsandfollowingthesuppressionofthe1871pariscommunetheexecutionandexileofmanycommunardstopenalcoloniesfavoredindividualistpoliticalexpressionandacts
numerousheadsofstatewereassassinatedbetween1881and1914bymembersoftheanarchistmovementforexampleuspresidentmckinleysassassinleonczolgoszclaimedtohavebeeninfluencedbyanarchistandfeministemmagoldmanbombingswereassociatedinthemediawithanarchistsbecauseinternationalterrorismaroseduringthistimeperiodwiththewidespreaddistributionofdynamitethisimageremainstothisday
propagandaofthedeedwasabandonedbythevastmajorityoftheanarchistmovementafterworldwari19141918andthe1917octoberrevolution
expelledamericananarchistsemmagoldmanandalexanderberkmanwereamongstthoseagitatinginresponsetobolshevikpolicyandthesuppressionofthekronstadtuprisingbeforetheyleftrussiabothwroteaccountsoftheirexperiencesinrussiacriticizingtheamountofcontrolthebolsheviksexercisedforthembakuninspredictionsabouttheconsequencesofmarxistrulethattherulersofthenewsocialistmarxiststatewouldbecomeanewelitehadprovedalltootrue
thevictoryofthebolsheviksintheoctoberrevolutionandtheresultingrussiancivilwardidseriousdamagetoanarchistmovementsinternationallymanyworkersandactivistssawbolsheviksuccessassettinganexamplecommunistpartiesgrewattheexpenseofanarchismandothersocialistmovementsinfranceandtheunitedstatesforexamplemembersofthemajorsyndicalistmovementsofthecgtandiwwlefttheorganizationsandjoinedthecommunistinternational
therevolutionarywaveof191723sawtheactiveparticipationofanarchistsinvaryingdegreesofprotagonisminthegermanuprisingknownasthebavariansovietrepublictheanarchistsgustavlandauersilviogesellanderichmühsamhadimportantleadershippositionswithintherevolutionarycounciliststructuresintheitalianeventsknownasthebienniorossotheanarchosyndicalisttradeunionunionesindacaleitalianagrewto800000membersandtheinfluenceoftheitaliananarchistunion20000membersplusumanitanovaitsdailypapergrewaccordinglyanarchistswerethefirsttosuggestoccupyingworkplacesinthemexicanrevolutionthemexicanliberalpartywasestablishedandduringtheearly1910sitleadaseriesofmilitaryoffensivesleadingtotheconquestandoccupationofcertaintownsanddistrictsinbajacaliforniawiththeleadershipofanarchocommunistricardofloresmagón
inparisthedielotrudagroupofrussiananarchistexileswhichincludednestormakhnoconcludedthatanarchistsneededtodevelopnewformsoforganisationinresponsetothestructuresofbolshevismtheir1926manifestocalledtheorganizationalplatformofthegeneralunionofanarchistsdraftwassupportedplatformistgroupsactivetodayincludetheworkerssolidaritymovementinirelandandthenortheasternfederationofanarchistcommunistsofnorthamericasynthesisanarchismemergedasanorganizationalalternativetoplatformismwhichtriestojoinanarchistsofdifferenttendenciesundertheprinciplesofanarchismwithoutadjectivesinthe1920sthisformfoundasitsmainproponentsvolinandsebastienfaureitisthemainprinciplebehindtheanarchistfederationsgroupedaroundthecontemporaryglobalinternationalofanarchistfederations
inthe1920sand1930stheriseoffascismineuropetransformedanarchismsconflictwiththestateitalysawthefirststrugglesbetweenanarchistsandfascistsitaliananarchistsplayedakeyroleintheantifascistorganisationarditidelpopolowhichwasstrongestinareaswithanarchisttraditionsandachievedsomesuccessintheiractivismsuchasrepellingblackshirtsintheanarchiststrongholdofparmainaugust1922theveteranitaliananarchistluigifabbriwasoneofthefirstcriticaltheoristsoffascismdescribingitasthepreventivecounterrevolution1infrancewherethefarrightleaguescameclosetoinsurrectioninthefebruary1934riotsanarchistsdividedoveraunitedfrontpolicy
inspainthecntinitiallyrefusedtojoinapopularfrontelectoralallianceandabstentionbycntsupportersledtoarightwingelectionvictorybutin1936thecntchangeditspolicyandanarchistvoteshelpedbringthepopularfrontbacktopowermonthslatertheformerrulingclassrespondedwithanattemptedcoupcausingthespanishcivilwar19361939
anarchistsinfranceanditalywereactiveintheresistanceduringworldwarii
anarchismsoughttoreorganizeitselfafterthewarthemexicananarchistfederationwasestablishedon1945aftertheanarchistfederationofthecenterunitedwiththeanarchistfederationofthefederaldistrictintheearly1940santifascistinternationalsolidarityandfederationofanarchistgroupsofcubamergeintothelargenationalorganizationasociaciónlibertariadecubacubanlibertarianassociationfrom1944to1947thebulgariananarchistcommunistfederationreemergesaspartofafactoryandworkplacecommitteemovementbutisrepressedbythenewcommunistregimein1945infrancethefédérationanarchisteisestablishedandthealsosynthesistfederazioneanarchicaitalianaisfoundedinitalykoreananarchistsformtheleagueoffreesocialconstructorsinseptember1945aninternationalanarchistcongresswithdelegatesfromacrosseuropeisheldinparisinmay1948in1955theanarchocommunistfederationofargentinarenamesitselfastheargentinelibertarianfederation
anarchismcontinuedtobeinfluentialinimportantliteraryandintellectualpersonalitiesofthetimesuchasalbertcamusherbertreadpaulgoodmandwightmacdonaldallenginsbergjulianbeckandthefrenchsurrealistgroupledbyandrébretonwhichnowopenlyembracedanarchismandcollaboratedinthefédérationanarchiste
anarchopacifismbecameinfluentialintheantinuclearmovementandantiwarmovementsofthetimeascanbeseenintheactivismandwritingsoftheenglishanarchistmemberofcampaignfornucleardisarmamentalexcomfortorthesimilaractivismoftheamericancatholicanarchopacifistammonhennacyanarchopacifismbecameabasisforacritiqueofmilitarismonbothsidesofthecoldwartheresurgenceofanarchistideasduringthisperiodiswelldocumentedinrobertgrahamsvolumetwotheemergenceofthenewanarchism19391977
intheunitedkingdominthe1970sthiswasassociatedwiththepunkrockmovementasexemplifiedbybandssuchascrassandthesexpistolsthehousingandemploymentcrisisinmostofwesterneuropeledtotheformationofcommunesandsquattermovementslikethatofbarcelonaspainindenmarksquattersoccupiedadisusedmilitarybaseanddeclaredthefreetownchristianiaanautonomoushavenincentralcopenhagen
sincetherevivalofanarchisminthemid20thcentury
aroundtheturnofthe21stcenturyanarchismgrewinpopularityandinfluenceaspartoftheantiwaranticapitalistandantiglobalisationmovementsanarchistsbecameknownfortheirinvolvementinprotestsagainstthemeetingsoftheworldtradeorganizationwtogroupofeightandtheworldeconomicforumsomeanarchistfactionsattheseprotestsengagedinriotingpropertydestructionandviolentconfrontationswithpolicetheseactionswereprecipitatedbyadhocleaderlessanonymouscadresknownasblackblocsotherorganisationaltacticspioneeredinthistimeincludesecuritycultureaffinitygroupsandtheuseofdecentralisedtechnologiessuchastheinternetasignificanteventofthisperiodwastheconfrontationsatwtoconferenceinseattlein1999
internationalanarchistfederationsinexistenceincludetheinternationalofanarchistfederationstheinternationalworkersassociationandinternationallibertariansolidarity
beyondthespecificfactionsofanarchistthoughtisphilosophicalanarchismwhichembodiesthetheoreticalstancethatthestatelacksmorallegitimacywithoutacceptingtheimperativeofrevolutiontoeliminateitacomponentespeciallyofindividualistanarchismphilosophicalanarchismmayaccepttheexistenceofaminimalstateasunfortunateandusuallytemporarynecessaryevilbutarguethatcitizensdonothaveamoralobligationtoobeythestatewhenitslawsconflictwithindividualautonomyonereactionagainstsectarianismwithintheanarchistmilieuwasanarchismwithoutadjectivesacallfortolerationfirstadoptedbyfernandotarridadelmármolin1889inresponsetothebitterdebatesofanarchisttheoryatthetimeinabandoningthehyphenatedanarchismsiecollectivistcommunistmutualistandindividualistanarchismitsoughttoemphasisetheantiauthoritarianbeliefscommontoallanarchistschoolsofthought
mutualismbeganin18thcenturyenglishandfrenchlabourmovementsbeforetakingananarchistformassociatedwithpierrejosephproudhoninfranceandothersintheunitedstatesproudhonproposedspontaneousorderwherebyorganizationemergeswithoutcentralauthorityapositiveanarchywhereorderariseswheneverybodydoeswhathewishesandonlywhathewishesandwherebusinesstransactionsaloneproducethesocialorder
mutualistanarchismisconcernedwithreciprocityfreeassociationvoluntarycontractfederationandcreditandcurrencyreformaccordingtowilliambatcheldergreeneeachworkerinthemutualistsystemwouldreceivejustandexactpayforhisworkservicesequivalentincostbeingexchangeableforservicesequivalentincostwithoutprofitordiscountmutualismhasbeenretrospectivelycharacterisedasideologicallysituatedbetweenindividualistandcollectivistformsofanarchismproudhonfirstcharacterisedhisgoalasathirdformofsocietythesynthesisofcommunismandproperty
individualistanarchismreferstoseveraltraditionsofthoughtwithintheanarchistmovementthatemphasizetheindividualandtheirwilloveranykindsofexternaldeterminantssuchasgroupssocietytraditionsandideologicalsystemsindividualistanarchismisnotasinglephilosophybutreferstoagroupofindividualisticphilosophiesthatsometimesareinconflict
aninfluentialformofindividualistanarchismcalledegoismoregoistanarchismwasexpoundedbyoneoftheearliestandbestknownproponentsofindividualistanarchismthegermanmaxstirnerstirnerstheegoanditsownpublishedin1844isafoundingtextofthephilosophywithoutregardforgodstateormoralitytostirnerrightswerespooksinthemindandheheldthatsocietydoesnotexistbuttheindividualsareitsrealitystirneradvocatedselfassertionandforesawunionsofegoistsnonsystematicassociationscontinuallyrenewedbyallpartiessupportthroughanactofwillwhichstirnerproposedasaformoforganizationinplaceofthestateegoistanarchistsclaimthategoismwillfostergenuineandspontaneousunionbetweenindividualsegoismhasinspiredmanyinterpretationsofstirnersphilosophyitwasrediscoveredandpromotedbygermanphilosophicalanarchistandlgbtactivistjohnhenrymackay
josiahwarreniswidelyregardedasthefirstamericananarchistandthefourpageweeklypaperheeditedduring1833thepeacefulrevolutionistwasthefirstanarchistperiodicalpublishedforamericananarchisthistorianeuniceminetteschusteritisapparentthatproudhoniananarchismwastobefoundintheunitedstatesatleastasearlyas1848andthatitwasnotconsciousofitsaffinitytotheindividualistanarchismofjosiahwarrenandstephenpearlandrewswilliambgreenepresentedthisproudhonianmutualisminitspurestandmostsystematicformhenrydavidthoreau18171862wasanimportantearlyinfluenceinindividualistanarchistthoughtintheunitedstatesandeuropethoreauwasanamericanauthorpoetnaturalisttaxresisterdevelopmentcriticsurveyorhistorianphilosopherandleadingtranscendentalistheisbestknownforhisbookswaldenareflectionuponsimplelivinginnaturalsurroundingsandhisessaycivildisobedienceanargumentforindividualresistancetocivilgovernmentinmoraloppositiontoanunjuststatelaterbenjamintuckerfusedstirnersegoismwiththeeconomicsofwarrenandproudhoninhiseclecticinfluentialpublicationliberty
fromtheseearlyinfluencesindividualistanarchismindifferentcountriesattractedasmallbutdiversefollowingofbohemianartistsandintellectualsfreeloveandbirthcontroladvocatesseeanarchismandissuesrelatedtoloveandsexindividualistnaturistsnudistsseeanarchonaturismfreethoughtandanticlearicalactivistsaswellasyounganarchistoutlawsinwhatcametobeknownasillegalismandindividualreclamationseeeuropeanindividualistanarchismandindividualistanarchisminfrancetheseauthorsandactivistsincludedoscarwildeemilearmandhanrynerhenrizislyrenzonovatoremiguelgimenezigualadaadolfbrandandlevchernyiamongothers
socialanarchismcallsforasystemwithpublicownershipofmeansofproductionanddemocraticcontrolofallorganizationswithoutanygovernmentauthorityorcoercionitisthelargestschoolofthoughtinanarchismsocialanarchismrejectsprivatepropertyseeingitasasourceofsocialinequalityandemphasisescooperationandmutualaidcollectivistanarchismalsoreferredtoasrevolutionarysocialismoraformofsuchisarevolutionaryformofanarchismcommonlyassociatedwithmikhailbakuninandjohannmostcollectivistanarchistsopposeallprivateownershipofthemeansofproductioninsteadadvocatingthatownershipbecollectivisedthiswastobeachievedthroughviolentrevolutionfirststartingwithasmallcohesivegroupthroughactsofviolenceorpropagandabythedeedwhichwouldinspiretheworkersasawholetorevoltandforciblycollectivisethemeansofproduction
howevercollectivizationwasnottobeextendedtothedistributionofincomeasworkerswouldbepaidaccordingtotimeworkedratherthanreceivinggoodsbeingdistributedaccordingtoneedasinanarchocommunismthispositionwascriticisedbyanarchistcommunistsaseffectivelyuphold2thewagessystemcollectivistanarchismarosecontemporaneouslywithmarxismbutopposedthemarxistdictatorshipoftheproletariatdespitethestatedmarxistgoalofacollectiviststatelesssocietyanarchistcommunistandcollectivistideasarenotmutuallyexclusivealthoughthecollectivistanarchistsadvocatedcompensationforlaboursomeheldoutthepossibilityofapostrevolutionarytransitiontoacommunistsystemofdistributionaccordingtoneed
anarchocommunismdevelopedoutofradicalsocialistcurrentsafterthefrenchrevolutionbutwasfirstformulatedassuchintheitaliansectionofthefirstinternationalthetheoreticalworkofpeterkropotkinanderricomalatestatookimportancelaterasitexpandedanddevelopedproorganizationalistandinsurrectionaryantiorganizationalistsectionsanarchistcommunismproposesthatthefreestformofsocialorganisationwouldbeasocietycomposedofselfmanagingcommuneswithcollectiveuseofthemeansofproductionorganiseddemocraticallyandrelatedtoothercommunesthroughfederationwhilesomeanarchistcommunistsfavourdirectdemocracyothersfeelthatitsmajoritarianismcanimpedeindividuallibertyandfavourconsensusdemocracyinsteadinanarchistcommunismasmoneywouldbeabolishedindividualswouldnotreceivedirectcompensationforlabourthroughsharingofprofitsorpaymentbutwouldhavefreeaccesstotheresourcesandsurplusofthecommuneanarchistcommunismdoesnotalwayshaveacommunitarianphilosophysomeformsofanarchistcommunismsuchasinsurrectionaryanarchismareegoistandstronglyinfluencedbyradicalindividualismbelievinganarchocommunismisthebestsocialsystemfortherealizationofindividualfreedommostanarchocommunistsviewanarchocommunismasawayofreconcilingtheoppositionbetweentheindividualandsociety
intheearly20thcenturyanarchosyndicalismaroseasadistinctschoolofthoughtwithinanarchismwithgreaterfocusonthelabourmovementthanpreviousformsofanarchismsyndicalismpositsradicaltradeunionsasapotentialforceforrevolutionarysocialchangereplacingcapitalismandthestatewithanewsocietydemocraticallyselfmanagedbytheworkersitisoftencombinedwithotherbranchesofanarchismandanarchosyndicalistsoftensubscribetoanarchistcommunistorcollectivistanarchisteconomicsystemsanearlyleadinganarchosyndicalistthinkerwasrudolfrockerwhose1938pamphletanarchosyndicalismoutlinedaviewofthemovementsoriginaimsandimportancetothefutureoflabour
anarchafeminismdevelopedasasynthesisofradicalfeminismandanarchismthatviewspatriarchymaledominationoverwomenasafundamentalmanifestationofcompulsorygovernmentitwasinspiredbythelate19thcenturywritingsofearlyfeministanarchistssuchaslucyparsonsemmagoldmanvoltairinedecleyreanddoramarsdenanarchafeministslikeotherradicalfeministscriticiseandadvocatetheabolitionoftraditionalconceptionsoffamilyeducationandgenderrolesgreenanarchismorecoanarchismisaschoolofthoughtwithinanarchismwhichputsanemphasisonenvironmentalissueswithanimportantprecedentinanarchonaturismandwhosemaincontemporarycurrentsareanarchoprimitivismandsocialecologyanarchopacifismisatendencywhichrejectstheuseofviolenceinthestruggleforsocialchangeitsmainproponentsincludedleotolstoydorothydayammonhennacyandjacquesellul
postleftanarchyisatendencywhichseekstodistanceitselffromtraditionalleftwingpoliticsandtoescapetheconfinesofideologyingeneralpostanarchismisatheoreticalmovetowardsasynthesisofclassicalanarchisttheoryandpoststructuralistthoughtdrawingfromdiverseideasincludingpostmodernismautonomistmarxismpostleftanarchysituationismandpostcolonialism
intersectingandoverlappingbetweenvariousschoolsofthoughtcertaintopicsofinterestandinternaldisputeshaveprovenperennialwithinanarchisttheory
innewyorkcitysgreenwichvillagebohemianfeministsandsocialistsadvocatedselfrealisationandpleasureforwomenandalsomeninthehereandnowtheyencouragedplayingwithsexualrolesandsexualityandtheopenlybisexualradicalednastvincentmillayandthelesbiananarchistmargaretandersonwereprominentamongthemdiscussiongroupsorganisedbythevillagerswerefrequentedbyemmagoldmanamongothersmagnushirschfeldnotedin1923thatgoldmanhascampaignedboldlyandsteadfastlyforindividualrightsandespeciallyforthosedeprivedoftheirrightsthusitcameaboutthatshewasthefirstandonlywomanindeedthefirstandonlyamericantotakeupthedefenseofhomosexuallovebeforethegeneralpublicinfactbeforegoldmanheterosexualanarchistrobertreitzel18491898spokepositivelyofhomosexualityfromthebeginningofthe1890sinhisdetroitbasedgermanlanguagejournalderarmeteufelinargentinaanarchafeministvirginiaboltenpublishedthenewspapercalledwhichwaspublishedninetimesinrosariobetween8january1896and1january1897andwasrevivedbrieflyin1901
ineuropethemainpropagandistoffreelovewithinindividualistanarchismwasemilearmandheproposedtheconceptoflacamaraderieamoureusetospeakoffreeloveasthepossibilityofvoluntarysexualencounterbetweenconsentingadultshewasalsoaconsistentproponentofpolyamoryingermanythestirneristsadolfbrandandjohnhenrymackaywerepioneeringcampaignersfortheacceptanceofmalebisexualityandhomosexuality
morerecentlythebritishanarchopacifistalexcomfortgainednotorietyduringthesexualrevolutionforwritingthebestsellersexmanualthejoyofsextheissueoffreelovehasadedicatedtreatmentintheworkoffrenchanarchohedonistphilosophermichelonfrayinsuchworksasthéorieducorpsamoureuxpouruneérotiquesolaire2000andlinventionduplaisirfragmentscyréaniques2002
intheunitedstatesfreethoughtwasabasicallyantichristiananticlericalmovementwhosepurposewastomaketheindividualpoliticallyandspirituallyfreetodecideforhimselfonreligiousmattersanumberofcontributorstolibertyanarchistpublicationwereprominentfiguresinbothfreethoughtandanarchismtheindividualistanarchistgeorgemacdonaldwasacoeditoroffreethoughtandforatimethetruthseekerecwalkerwascoeditoroftheexcellentfreethoughtfreelovejournalluciferthelightbearermanyoftheanarchistswereardentfreethinkersreprintsfromfreethoughtpaperssuchasluciferthelightbearerfreethoughtandthetruthseekerappearedinlibertythechurchwasviewedasacommonallyofthestateandasarepressiveforceinandofitself
in1901catalananarchistandfreethinkerfrancescferreriguàrdiaestablishedmodernorprogressiveschoolsinbarcelonaindefianceofaneducationalsystemcontrolledbythecatholicchurchtheschoolsstatedgoalwastoeducatetheworkingclassinarationalsecularandnoncoercivesettingfiercelyanticlericalferrerbelievedinfreedomineducationeducationfreefromtheauthorityofchurchandstatemurraybookchinwrotethisperiod3wastheheydayoflibertarianschoolsandpedagogicalprojectsinallareasofthecountrywhereanarchistsexercisedsomedegreeofinfluenceperhapsthebestknowneffortinthisfieldwasfranciscoferrersmodernschoolescuelamodernaaprojectwhichexercisedaconsiderableinfluenceoncatalaneducationandonexperimentaltechniquesofteachinggenerallylaescuelamodernaandferrersideasgenerallyformedtheinspirationforaseriesofmodernschoolsintheunitedstatestolstoyseducationalexperimentswereshortlivedduetoharassmentbythetsaristsecretpolicetolstoyestablishedaconceptualdifferencebetweeneducationandculturehethoughtthateducationisthetendencyofonemantomakeanotherjustlikehimselfeducationiscultureunderrestraintcultureisfreeiswhentheteachingisforceduponthepupilandwhentheninstructionisexclusivethatiswhenonlythosesubjectsaretaughtwhichtheeducatorregardsasnecessaryforhimwithoutcompulsioneducationwastransformedintoculture
amorerecentlibertariantraditiononeducationisthatofunschoolingandthefreeschoolinwhichchildledactivityreplacespedagogicapproachesexperimentsingermanyledtoasneillfoundingwhatbecamesummerhillschoolin1921summerhillisoftencitedasanexampleofanarchisminpracticehoweveralthoughsummerhillandotherfreeschoolsareradicallylibertariantheydifferinprinciplefromthoseofferrerbynotadvocatinganovertlypoliticalclassstruggleapproachinadditiontoorganizingschoolsaccordingtolibertarianprinciplesanarchistshavealsoquestionedtheconceptofschoolingpersethetermdeschoolingwaspopularizedbyivanillichwhoarguedthattheschoolasaninstitutionisdysfunctionalforselfdeterminedlearningandservesthecreationofaconsumersocietyinstead
phenomenasuchascivilizationtechnologyegwithinanarchoprimitivismandinsurrectionaryanarchismandthedemocraticprocessmaybesharplycriticisedwithinsomeanarchisttendenciesandsimultaneouslylaudedinothers
criticismsofanarchismincludemoralcriticismspracticalcriticismswhichclaimthatanarchismisunworkableinpracticeandthecriticismthatanarchismcouldnotbemaintained
autismisadisorderofneuraldevelopmentcharacterizedbyimpairedsocialinteractionandcommunicationandbyrestrictedandrepetitivebehaviorthesesignsallbeginbeforeachildisthreeyearsoldautismaffectsinformationprocessinginthebrainbyalteringhownervecellsandtheirsynapsesconnectandorganizehowthisoccursisnotwellunderstooditisoneofthreerecognizeddisordersintheautismspectrumasdstheothertwobeingaspergersyndromewhichlacksdelaysincognitivedevelopmentandlanguageandpervasivedevelopmentaldisordernototherwisespecifiedcommonlyabbreviatedaspddnoswhichisdiagnosedwhenthefullsetofcriteriaforautismoraspergersyndromearenotmet
autismhasastronggeneticbasisalthoughthegeneticsofautismarecomplexanditisunclearwhetherasdisexplainedmorebyraremutationsorbyrarecombinationsofcommongeneticvariantstheprevalenceofautismisabout12per1000peopleworldwidehoweverthecentersfordiseasecontrolandpreventioncdcreportsapproximately9per1000childrenintheunitedstatesarediagnosedwithasdthenumberofpeoplediagnosedwithautismhasincreaseddramaticallysincethe1980spartlyduetochangesindiagnosticpracticethequestionofwhetheractualprevalencehasincreasedisunresolved
parentsusuallynoticesignsinthefirsttwoyearsoftheirchildslifethesignsusuallydevelopgraduallybutsomeautisticchildrenfirstdevelopmorenormallyandthenregressearlybehavioralorcognitiveinterventioncanhelpautisticchildrengainselfcaresocialandcommunicationskillsalthoughthereisnoknowncuretherehavebeenreportedcasesofchildrenwhorecoverednotmanychildrenwithautismliveindependentlyafterreachingadulthoodthoughsomebecomesuccessfulanautisticculturehasdevelopedwithsomeindividualsseekingacureandothersbelievingautismshouldbeacceptedasadifferenceandnottreatedasadisorder
autismisahighlyvariableneurodevelopmentaldisorderandtendtocontinuethroughadulthoodalthoughofteninmoremutedformitisdistinguishednotbyasinglesymptombutbyacharacteristictriadofsymptomsimpairmentsinsocialinteractionimpairmentsincommunicationandrestrictedinterestsandrepetitivebehaviorotheraspectssuchasatypicaleatingarealsocommonbutarenotessentialfordiagnosisautismsindividualsymptomsoccurinthegeneralpopulationandappearnottoassociatehighlywithoutasharplineseparatingpathologicallyseverefromcommontraits
socialdeficitsdistinguishautismandtherelatedautismspectrumdisordersasdseeclassificationfromotherdevelopmentaldisorders
unusualsocialdevelopmentbecomesapparentearlyinchildhoodautisticinfantsshowlessattentiontosocialstimulismileandlookatotherslessoftenandrespondlesstotheirownnameautistictoddlersdiffermorestrikinglyfromsocialnormsforexampletheyhavelesseyecontactandturntakinganddonothavetheabilitytousesimplemovementstoexpressthemselvessuchasthedeficiencytopointatthingsmostautisticchildrendisplaymoderatelylessattachmentsecuritythannonautisticchildrenalthoughthisdifferencedisappearsinchildrenwithhighermentaldevelopmentorlesssevereasdolderchildrenandadultswithasdperformworseontestsoffaceandemotionrecognition
childrenwithhighfunctioningautismsufferfrommoreintenseandfrequentlonelinesscomparedtononautisticpeersdespitethecommonbeliefthatchildrenwithautismprefertobealonemakingandmaintainingfriendshipsoftenprovestobedifficultforthosewithautismforthemthequalityoffriendshipsnotthenumberoffriendspredictshowlonelytheyfeelfunctionalfriendshipssuchasthoseresultingininvitationstopartiesmayaffectthequalityoflifemoredeeply
therearemanyanecdotalreportsbutfewsystematicstudiesofaggressionandviolenceinindividualswithasdthelimiteddatasuggestthatinchildrenwithmentalretardationautismisassociatedwithaggressiondestructionofpropertyandtantrumsa2007studyinterviewedparentsof67childrenwithasdandreportedthatabouttwothirdsofthechildrenhadperiodsofseveretantrumsandaboutonethirdhadahistoryofaggressionwithtantrumssignificantlymorecommonthaninnonautisticchildrenwithlanguageimpairments
aboutathirdtoahalfofindividualswithautismdonotdevelopenoughnaturalspeechtomeettheirdailycommunicationneedsdifferencesincommunicationmaybepresentfromthefirstyearoflifeandmayincludedelayedonsetofbabblingunusualgesturesdiminishedresponsivenessandvocalpatternsthatarenotsynchronizedwiththecaregiverinthesecondandthirdyearsautisticchildrenhavelessfrequentandlessdiversebabblingconsonantswordsandwordcombinationstheirgesturesarelessoftenintegratedwithwordsautisticchildrenarelesslikelytomakerequestsorshareexperiencesandaremorelikelytosimplyrepeatotherswordsecholaliaforexampletheymaylookatapointinghandinsteadofthepointedatobject
inapairofstudieshighfunctioningautisticchildrenaged815performedequallywellasandadultsbetterthanindividuallymatchedcontrolsatbasiclanguagetasksinvolvingvocabularyandspellingbothautisticgroupsperformedworsethancontrolsatcomplexlanguagetaskssuchasfigurativelanguagecomprehensionandinferenceaspeopleareoftensizedupinitiallyfromtheirbasiclanguageskillsthesestudiessuggestthatpeoplespeakingtoautisticindividualsaremorelikelytooverestimatewhattheiraudiencecomprehends
autisticindividualsdisplaymanyformsofrepetitiveorrestrictedbehaviorwhichtherepetitivebehaviorscalerevisedrbsrcategorizesasfollows
autisticindividualsmayhavesymptomsthatareindependentofthediagnosisbutthatcanaffecttheindividualorthefamilyanestimated05to10ofindividualswithasdshowunusualabilitiesrangingfromsplinterskillssuchasthememorizationoftriviatotheextraordinarilyraretalentsofprodigiousautisticsavantsmanyindividualswithasdshowsuperiorskillsinperceptionandattentionrelativetothegeneralpopulationsensoryabnormalitiesarefoundinover90ofthosewithautismandareconsideredcorefeaturesbysomealthoughthereisnogoodevidencethatsensorysymptomsdifferentiateautismfromotherdevelopmentaldisordersdifferencesaregreaterforunderresponsivityforexamplewalkingintothingsthanforoverresponsivityforexampledistressfromloudnoisesorforsensationseekingforexamplerhythmicmovementsanestimated6080ofautisticpeoplehavemotorsignsthatincludepoormuscletonepoormotorplanningandtoewalking
unusualeatingbehavioroccursinaboutthreequartersofchildrenwithasdtotheextentthatitwasformerlyadiagnosticindicatorselectivityisthemostcommonproblemalthougheatingritualsandfoodrefusalalsooccurthisdoesnotappeartoresultinmalnutritionalthoughsomechildrenwithautismalsohavegastrointestinalgisymptomsthereisalackofpublishedrigorousdatatosupportthetheorythatautisticchildrenhavemoreordifferentgisymptomsthanusualstudiesreportconflictingresultsandtherelationshipbetweengiproblemsandasdisunclear
parentsofchildrenwithasdhavehigherlevelsofstresssiblingsofchildrenwithasdreportgreateradmirationofandlessconflictwiththeaffectedsiblingthansiblingsofunaffectedchildrenorthosewithdownsyndromesiblingsofindividualswithasdhavegreaterriskofnegativewellbeingandpoorersiblingrelationshipsasadults
autismisoneofthefivepervasivedevelopmentaldisorderspddwhicharecharacterizedbywidespreadabnormalitiesofsocialinteractionsandcommunicationandseverelyrestrictedinterestsandhighlyrepetitivebehaviorthesesymptomsdonotimplysicknessfragilityoremotionaldisturbance
ofthefivepddformsaspergersyndromeisclosesttoautisminsignsandlikelycausesrettsyndromeandchildhooddisintegrativedisordershareseveralsignswithautismbutmayhaveunrelatedcausespddnototherwisespecifiedpddnosalsocalledatypicalautismisdiagnosedwhenthecriteriaarenotmetforamorespecificdisorderunlikewithautismpeoplewithaspergersyndromehavenosubstantialdelayinlanguagedevelopmentwhereasautismitselfisoftencalledautisticdisorderchildhoodautismorinfantileautisminthisarticleautismreferstotheclassicautisticdisorderinclinicalpracticethoughautismasdandpddareoftenusedinterchangeably
themanifestationsofautismcoverawidespectrumrangingfromindividualswithsevereimpairmentswhomaybesilentmentallydisabledandlockedintohandflappingandrockingtohighfunctioningindividualswhomayhaveactivebutdistinctlyoddsocialapproachesnarrowlyfocusedinterestsandverbosepedanticcommunicationbecausethebehaviorspectrumiscontinuousboundariesbetweendiagnosticcategoriesarenecessarilysomewhatarbitraryoronhowmuchsupporttheindividualrequiresindailylifethesesubdivisionsarenotstandardizedandarecontroversialautismcanalsobedividedintosyndromalandnonsyndromalautismthesyndromalautismisassociatedwithsevereorprofoundmentalretardationoracongenitalsyndromewithphysicalsymptomssuchastuberoussclerosisalthoughindividualswithaspergersyndrometendtoperformbettercognitivelythanthosewithautismtheextentoftheoverlapbetweenaspergersyndromehfaandnonsyndromalautismisunclearvalidityofasdsubtypes
somestudieshavereporteddiagnosesofautisminchildrenduetoalossoflanguageorsocialskillsasopposedtoafailuretomakeprogresstypicallyfrom15to30monthsofagethevalidityofthisdistinctionremainscontroversialitispossiblethatregressiveautismisaspecificsubtype
researchintocauseshasbeenhamperedbytheinabilitytoidentifybiologicallymeaningfulsubpopulationsandbythetraditionalboundariesbetweenthedisciplinesofpsychiatrypsychologyneurologyandpediatricsnewertechnologiessuchasfmrianddiffusiontensorimagingcanhelpidentifybiologicallyrelevantphenotypesobservabletraitsthatcanbeviewedonbrainscanstohelpfurtherneurogeneticstudiesofautismoneexampleisloweredactivityinthefusiformfaceareaofthebrainwhichisassociatedwithimpairedperceptionofpeopleversusobjects
ithaslongbeenpresumedthatthereisacommoncauseatthegeneticcognitiveandneurallevelsforautismscharacteristictriadofsymptoms
severallinesofevidencepointtosynapticdysfunctionasacauseofautismgenereplacementstudiesinmicesuggestthatautisticsymptomsarecloselyrelatedtolaterdevelopmentalstepsthatdependonactivityinsynapsesandonactivitydependentchangesallknownteratogensagentsthatcausebirthdefectsrelatedtotheriskofautismappeartoactduringthefirsteightweeksfromconceptionandthoughthisdoesnotexcludethepossibilitythatautismcanbeinitiatedoraffectedlateritisstrongevidencethatautismarisesveryearlyindevelopment
althoughevidenceforotherenvironmentalcausesisanecdotalandhasnotbeenconfirmedbyreliablestudiesenvironmentalfactorsthathavebeenclaimedtocontributetoorexacerbateautismormaybeimportantinfutureresearchincludecertainfoodsinfectiousdiseaseheavymetalssolventsdieselexhaustpcbsphthalatesandphenolsusedinplasticproductspesticidesbrominatedflameretardantsalcoholsmokingillicitdrugsvaccinesalthoughnolinkshavebeenfoundandsomehavebeencompletelydisproven
parentsmayfirstbecomeawareofautisticsymptomsintheirchildaroundthetimeofaroutinevaccinationthishasledtounsupportedtheoriesblamingvaccineoverloadavaccinepreservativeorthemmrvaccineforcausingautismalthoughthesetheorieslackconvincingscientificevidenceandarebiologicallyimplausibleparentalconcernaboutapotentialvaccinelinkwithautismhasledtolowerratesofchildhoodimmunizationsoutbreaksofpreviouslycontrolledchildhooddiseasesinsomecountriesandthepreventabledeathsofseveralchildrenvaccinesandautism
autismssymptomsresultfrommaturationrelatedchangesinvarioussystemsofthebrainhowautismoccursisnotwellunderstooditsmechanismcanbedividedintotwoareasthepathophysiologyofbrainstructuresandprocessesassociatedwithautismandtheneuropsychologicallinkagesbetweenbrainstructuresandbehaviorsthebehaviorsappeartohavemultiplepathophysiologies
interactionsbetweentheimmunesystemandthenervoussystembeginearlyduringtheembryonicstageoflifeandsuccessfulneurodevelopmentdependsonabalancedimmuneresponseitispossiblethataberrantimmuneactivityduringcriticalperiodsofneurodevelopmentispartofthemechanismofsomeformsofasdalthoughsomeabnormalitiesintheimmunesystemhavebeenfoundinspecificsubgroupsofautisticindividualsitisnotknownwhethertheseabnormalitiesarerelevanttoorsecondarytoautismsdiseaseprocessesasautoantibodiesarefoundinconditionsotherthanasdandarenotalwayspresentinasdtherelationshipbetweenimmunedisturbancesandautismremainsunclearandcontroversial
therelationshipofneurochemicalstoautismisnotwellunderstoodseveralhavebeeninvestigatedwiththemostevidencefortheroleofserotoninandofgeneticdifferencesinitstransportothershavepointedtoaroleforgroupimetabotropicglutamatereceptorsmglurinthepathogenesisofonetypeofautismfragilexsomedatasuggestanincreaseinseveralgrowthhormonesotherdataarguefordiminishedgrowthfactorsalsosomeinbornerrorsofmetabolismareassociatedwithautismbutprobablyaccountforlessthan5ofcases
themirrorneuronsystemmnstheoryofautismhypothesizesthatdistortioninthedevelopmentofthemnsinterfereswithimitationandleadstoautismscorefeaturesofsocialimpairmentandcommunicationdifficultiesthemnsoperateswhenananimalperformsanactionorobservesanotheranimalperformthesameactionthemnsmaycontributetoanindividualsunderstandingofotherpeoplebyenablingthemodelingoftheirbehaviorviaembodiedsimulationoftheiractionsintentionsandemotionsmnsandautism
theunderconnectivitytheoryofautismhypothesizesthatautismismarkedbyunderfunctioninghighlevelneuralconnectionsandsynchronizationalongwithanexcessoflowlevelprocessesevidenceforthistheoryhasbeenfoundinfunctionalneuroimagingstudiesonautisticindividualsandbyabrainwavestudythatsuggestedthatadultswithasdhavelocaloverconnectivityinthecortexandweakfunctionalconnectionsbetweenthefrontallobeandtherestofthecortexotherevidencesuggeststheunderconnectivityismainlywithineachhemisphereofthecortexandthatautismisadisorderoftheassociationcortex
fromstudiesbasedoneventrelatedpotentialstransientchangestothebrainselectricalactivityinresponsetostimulithereisconsiderableevidencefordifferencesinautisticindividualswithrespecttoattentionorientiationtoauditoryandvisualstimulinoveltydetectionlanguageandfaceprocessingandinformationstorageseveralstudieshavefoundapreferencefornonsocialstimuliforexamplemagnetoencephalographystudieshavefoundevidenceinautisticchildrenofdelayedresponsesinthebrainsprocessingofauditorysignals
inthegeneticarearelationshavebeenfoundbetweenautismandschizophreniabasedonduplicationsanddeletionsofchromosomesresearchshowedthatschizophreniaandautismaresignificantlymorecommonincombinationwith1q211deletionsyndromeresearchonautismschizophreniarelationsforchromosome1515q133chromosome1616p131andchromosome1717p12areinconclusive
twomajorcategoriesofcognitivetheorieshavebeenproposedaboutthelinksbetweenautisticbrainsandbehavior
thefirstcategoryfocusesondeficitsinsocialcognitiontheempathizingsystemizingtheorypostulatesthatautisticindividualscansystemizethatistheycandevelopinternalrulesofoperationtohandleeventsinsidethebrainbutarelesseffectiveatempathizingbyhandlingeventsgeneratedbyotheragentsanextensiontheextrememalebraintheoryhypothesizesthatautismisanextremecaseofthemalebraindefinedpsychometricallyasindividualsinwhomsystemizingisbetterthanempathizing
thesetheoriesaresomewhatrelatedtotheearliertheoryofmindapproachwhichhypothesizesthatautisticbehaviorarisesfromaninabilitytoascribementalstatestooneselfandothersthetheoryofmindhypothesisissupportedbyautisticchildrensatypicalresponsestothesallyannetestforreasoningaboutothersmotivationsandthemirrorneuronsystemtheoryofautismdescribedinpathophysiologymapswelltothehypothesis
thesecondcategoryfocusesonnonsocialorgeneralprocessingexecutivedysfunctionhypothesizesthatautisticbehaviorresultsinpartfromdeficitsinworkingmemoryplanninginhibitionandotherformsofexecutivefunctionastrengthofthetheoryispredictingstereotypedbehaviorandnarrowintereststwoweaknessesarethatexecutivefunctionishardtomeasureandthatexecutivefunctiondeficitshavenotbeenfoundinyoungautisticchildren
weakcentralcoherencetheoryhypothesizesthatalimitedabilitytoseethebigpictureunderliesthecentraldisturbanceinautismonestrengthofthistheoryispredictingspecialtalentsandpeaksinperformanceinautisticpeoplearelatedtheoryenhancedperceptualfunctioningfocusesmoreonthesuperiorityoflocallyorientedandperceptualoperationsinautisticindividualsthesetheoriesmapwellfromtheunderconnectivitytheoryofautism
neithercategoryissatisfactoryonitsownsocialcognitiontheoriespoorlyaddressautismsrigidandrepetitivebehaviorswhilethenonsocialtheorieshavedifficultyexplainingsocialimpairmentandcommunicationdifficultiesacombinedtheorybasedonmultipledeficitsmayprovetobemoreuseful
abouthalfofparentsofchildrenwithasdnoticetheirchildsunusualbehaviorsbyage18monthsandaboutfourfifthsnoticebyage24monthsaccordingtoanarticleinthejournalofautismanddevelopmentaldisordersfailuretomeetanyofthefollowingmilestonesisanabsoluteindicationtoproceedwithfurtherevaluationsdelayinreferralforsuchtestingmaydelayearlydiagnosisandtreatmentandaffectthelongtermoutcome
diagnosisisbasedonbehaviornotcauseormechanismautismisdefinedinthedsmivtrasexhibitingatleastsixsymptomstotalincludingatleasttwosymptomsofqualitativeimpairmentinsocialinteractionatleastonesymptomofqualitativeimpairmentincommunicationandatleastonesymptomofrestrictedandrepetitivebehaviorsamplesymptomsincludelackofsocialoremotionalreciprocitystereotypedandrepetitiveuseoflanguageoridiosyncraticlanguageandpersistentpreoccupationwithpartsofobjectsonsetmustbepriortoagethreeyearswithdelaysorabnormalfunctioningineithersocialinteractionlanguageasusedinsocialcommunicationorsymbolicorimaginativeplaythedisturbancemustnotbebetteraccountedforbyrettsyndromeorchildhooddisintegrativedisordericd10usesessentiallythesamedefinition
severaldiagnosticinstrumentsareavailabletwoarecommonlyusedinautismresearchtheautismdiagnosticinterviewrevisedadirisasemistructuredparentinterviewandtheautismdiagnosticobservationscheduleadosusesobservationandinteractionwiththechildthechildhoodautismratingscalecarsisusedwidelyinclinicalenvironmentstoassessseverityofautismbasedonobservationofchildren
apediatriciancommonlyperformsapreliminaryinvestigationbytakingdevelopmentalhistoryandphysicallyexaminingthechildifwarranteddiagnosisandevaluationsareconductedwithhelpfromasdspecialistsobservingandassessingcognitivecommunicationfamilyandotherfactorsusingstandardizedtoolsandtakingintoaccountanyassociatedmedicalconditionsadifferentialdiagnosisforasdatthisstagemightalsoconsidermentalretardationhearingimpairmentandaspecificlanguageimpairmentthepresenceofautismcanmakeithardertodiagnosecoexistingpsychiatricdisorderssuchasdepression
clinicalgeneticsevaluationsareoftendoneonceasdisdiagnosedparticularlywhenothersymptomsalreadysuggestageneticcauseconsensusguidelinesintheusandukarelimitedtohighresolutionchromosomeandfragilextestingasnewgenetictestsaredevelopedseveralethicallegalandsocialissueswillemergecommercialavailabilityoftestsmayprecedeadequateunderstandingofhowtousetestresultsgiventhecomplexityofautismsgeneticsmetabolicandneuroimagingtestsaresometimeshelpfulbutarenotroutine
asdcansometimesbediagnosedbyage14monthsalthoughdiagnosisbecomesincreasinglystableoverthefirstthreeyearsoflifeforexampleaoneyearoldwhomeetsdiagnosticcriteriaforasdislesslikelythanathreeyearoldtocontinuetodosoafewyearslaterintheukthenationalautismplanforchildrenrecommendsatmost30weeksfromfirstconcerntocompleteddiagnosisandassessmentthoughfewcasesarehandledthatquicklyinpracticea2009usstudyfoundtheaverageageofformalasddiagnosiswas57yearsfaraboverecommendationsandthat27ofchildrenremainedundiagnosedatage8yearsalthoughthesymptomsofautismandasdbeginearlyinchildhoodtheyaresometimesmissedyearslateradultsmayseekdiagnosestohelpthemortheirfriendsandfamilyunderstandthemselvestohelptheiremployersmakeadjustmentsorinsomelocationstoclaimdisabilitylivingallowancesorotherbenefits
underdiagnosisandoverdiagnosisareproblemsinmarginalcasesandmuchoftherecentincreaseinthenumberofreportedasdcasesislikelyduetochangesindiagnosticpracticestheincreasingpopularityofdrugtreatmentoptionsandtheexpansionofbenefitshasgivenprovidersincentivestodiagnoseasdresultinginsomeoverdiagnosisofchildrenwithuncertainsymptomsconverselythecostofscreeninganddiagnosisandthechallengeofobtainingpaymentcaninhibitordelaydiagnosisitisparticularlyhardtodiagnoseautismamongthevisuallyimpairedpartlybecausesomeofitsdiagnosticcriteriadependonvisionandpartlybecauseautisticsymptomsoverlapwiththoseofcommonblindnesssyndromesorblindisms
educationalinterventionscanbeeffectivetovaryingdegreesinmostchildrenintensiveabatreatmenthasdemonstratedeffectivenessinenhancingglobalfunctioninginpreschoolchildrenandiswellestablishedforimprovingintellectualperformanceofyoungchildrentheappropriatenessofincludingchildrenwithvaryingseverityofautismspectrumdisordersinthegeneraleducationpopulationisasubjectofcurrentdebateamongeducatorsandresearchers
manymedicationsareusedtotreatasdsymptomsthatinterferewithintegratingachildintohomeorschoolwhenbehavioraltreatmentfailsmorethanhalfofuschildrendiagnosedwithasdareprescribedpsychoactivedrugsoranticonvulsantswiththemostcommondrugclassesbeingantidepressantsstimulantsandantipsychoticsasidefromantipsychoticsthereisscantreliableresearchabouttheeffectivenessorsafetyofdrugtreatmentsforadolescentsandadultswithasdlackofresearchondrugtreatments
althoughmanyalternativetherapiesandinterventionsareavailablefewaresupportedbyscientificstudieslackofsupportforinterventions
treatmentisexpensiveindirectcostsaremoresoforsomeonebornin2000ausstudyestimatedanaveragelifetimecostofnetpresentvalueindollarsinflationadjustedfrom2003estimatewithabout10medicalcare30extraeducationandothercareand60losteconomicproductivitypubliclysupportedprogramsareofteninadequateorinappropriateforagivenchildandunreimbursedoutofpocketmedicalortherapyexpensesareassociatedwithlikelihoodoffamilyfinancialproblemsone2008usstudyfounda14averagelossofannualincomeinfamiliesofchildrenwithasdandarelatedstudyfoundthatasdisassociatedwithhigherprobabilitythatchildcareproblemswillgreatlyaffectparentalemploymentusstatesincreasinglyrequireprivatehealthinsurancetocoverautismservicesshiftingcostsfrompubliclyfundededucationprogramstoprivatelyfundedhealthinsuranceafterchildhoodkeytreatmentissuesincluderesidentialcarejobtrainingandplacementsexualitysocialskillsandestateplanning
thereisnoknowncuremostautisticchildrencanacquirelanguagebyage5oryoungerthoughafewhavedevelopedcommunicationskillsinlateryearsmostchildrenwithautismlacksocialsupportmeaningfulrelationshipsfutureemploymentopportunitiesorselfdeterminationalthoughcoredifficultiestendtopersistsymptomsoftenbecomelessseverewithageacquiringlanguagebeforeagesixhavinganiqabove50andhavingamarketableskillallpredictbetteroutcomesindependentlivingisunlikelywithsevereautisma2004britishstudyof68adultswhowerediagnosedbefore1980asautisticchildrenwithiqabove50foundthat12achievedahighlevelofindependenceasadults10hadsomefriendsandweregenerallyinworkbutrequiredsomesupport19hadsomeindependencebutweregenerallylivingathomeandneededconsiderablesupportandsupervisionindailyliving46neededspecialistresidentialprovisionfromfacilitiesspecializinginasdwithahighlevelofsupportandverylimitedautonomyand12neededhighlevelhospitalcarea2005swedishstudyof78adultsthatdidnotexcludelowiqfoundworseprognosisforexampleonly4achievedindependencea2008canadianstudyof48youngadultsdiagnosedwithasdaspreschoolersfoundoutcomesrangingthroughpoor46fair32good17andverygood456oftheseyoungadultshadbeenemployedatsomepointduringtheirlivesmostlyinvolunteershelteredorparttimeworkchangesindiagnosticpracticeandincreasedavailabilityofeffectiveearlyinterventionmakeitunclearwhetherthesefindingscanbegeneralizedtorecentlydiagnosedchildren
boysareathigherriskforasdthangirlsthesexratioaverages431andisgreatlymodifiedbycognitiveimpairmentitmaybecloseto21withmentalretardationandmorethan551withouttheriskisgreaterwitholderfathersthanwitholdermotherstwopotentialexplanationsaretheknownincreaseinmutationburdeninolderspermandthehypothesisthatmenmarrylateriftheycarrygeneticliabilityandshowsomesignsofautism
severalotherconditionsarecommoninchildrenwithautismtheyinclude
thenewlatinwordautismusenglishtranslationautismwascoinedbytheswisspsychiatristeugenbleulerin1910ashewasdefiningsymptomsofschizophreniahederiveditfromthegreekwordautósαὐτόςmeaningselfandusedittomeanmorbidselfadmirationreferringtoautisticwithdrawalofthepatienttohisfantasiesagainstwhichanyinfluencefromoutsidebecomesanintolerabledisturbance
thewordautismfirsttookitsmodernsensein1938whenhansaspergeroftheviennauniversityhospitaladoptedbleulersterminologyautisticpsychopathsinalectureingermanaboutchildpsychologyaspergerwasinvestigatinganasdnowknownasaspergersyndromethoughforvariousreasonsitwasnotwidelyrecognizedasaseparatediagnosisuntil1981almostallthecharacteristicsdescribedinkannersfirstpaperonthesubjectnotablyautisticalonenessandinsistenceonsamenessarestillregardedastypicaloftheautisticspectrumofdisorders
kannersreuseofautismledtodecadesofconfusedterminologylikeinfantileschizophreniaandchildpsychiatrysfocusonmaternaldeprivationledtomisconceptionsofautismasaninfantsresponsetorefrigeratormothersstartinginthelate1960sautismwasestablishedasaseparatesyndromebydemonstratingthatitislifelongdistinguishingitfrommentalretardationandschizophreniaandfromotherdevelopmentaldisordersanddemonstratingthebenefitsofinvolvingparentsinactiveprogramsoftherapyaslateasthemid1970stherewaslittleevidenceofageneticroleinautismnowitisthoughttobeoneofthemostheritableofallpsychiatricconditionsalthoughtheriseofparentorganizationsandthedestigmatizationofchildhoodasdhavedeeplyaffectedhowweviewasdandmanyprimarycarephysiciansandmedicalspecialistsstillexpresssomebeliefsconsistentwithoutdatedautismresearch
theinternethashelpedautisticindividualsbypassnonverbalcuesandemotionalsharingthattheyfindsohardtodealwithandhasgiventhemawaytoformonlinecommunitiesandworkremotelysociologicalandculturalaspectsofautismhavedevelopedsomeinthecommunityseekacurewhileothersbelievethatautismissimplyanotherwayofbeing
albedoorreflectioncoefficientisthediffusereflectivityorreflectingpowerofasurfaceitisdefinedastheratioofreflectedradiationfromthesurfacetoincidentradiationuponitbeingadimensionlessfractionitmayalsobeexpressedasapercentageandismeasuredonascalefromzerofornoreflectingpowerofaperfectlyblacksurfaceto1forperfectreflectionofawhitesurface
albedodependsonthefrequencyoftheradiationwhenquotedunqualifieditusuallyreferstosomeappropriateaverageacrossthespectrumofvisiblelightingeneralthealbedodependsonthedirectionaldistributionofincomingradiationexceptionsarelambertiansurfaceswhichscatterradiationinalldirectionsaccordingtoacosinefunctionsotheiralbedodoesnotdependontheincidentdistributioninpracticeabidirectionalreflectancedistributionfunctionbrdfmayberequiredtocharacterizethescatteringpropertiesofasurfaceaccuratelyalthoughthealbedoisaveryusefulfirstapproximation
thealbedoisanimportantconceptinclimatologyandastronomyaswellasincalculatingreflectivityofsurfacesinleedsustainableratingsystemsforbuildingscomputergraphicsandcomputervisiontheaverageoverallalbedoofearthitsplanetaryalbedois30to35becauseofthecoveringbycloudsbutvarieswidelylocallyacrossthesurfacedependingonthegeologicalandenvironmentalfeatures
thetermisderivedfromlatinalbedowhitenessinturnfromalbuswhiteandwasintroducedintoopticsbyjohannheinrichlambertinhis1760workphotometria
albedosoftypicalmaterialsinvisiblelightrangefromupto09forfreshsnowtoabout004forcharcoaloneofthedarkestsubstancesdeeplyshadowedcavitiescanachieveaneffectivealbedoapproachingthezeroofablackbodywhenseenfromadistancetheoceansurfacehasalowalbedoasdomostforestswhiledesertareashavesomeofthehighestalbedosamonglandformsmostlandareasareinanalbedorangeof01to04theaveragealbedooftheearthisabout03thisisfarhigherthanfortheoceanprimarilybecauseofthecontributionofclouds
humanactivitieshavechangedthealbedoviaforestclearanceandfarmingforexampleofvariousareasaroundtheglobehoweverquantificationofthiseffectontheglobalscaleisdifficult
theclassicexampleofalbedoeffectisthesnowtemperaturefeedbackifasnowcoveredareawarmsandthesnowmeltsthealbedodecreasesmoresunlightisabsorbedandthetemperaturetendstoincreasetheconverseistrueifsnowformsacoolingcyclehappenstheintensityofthealbedoeffectdependsonthesizeofthechangeinalbedoandtheamountofinsolationforthisreasonitcanbepotentiallyverylargeinthetropics
theearthsaveragesurfacetemperatureduetoitsalbedoandthegreenhouseeffectiscurrentlyabout15cforthefrozenmorereflectiveplanettheaveragetemperatureisbelow40cifonlyallcontinentsbeingcompletelycoveredbyglaciersthemeantemperatureisabout0cthesimulationformoreabsorptiveaquaplanetshowstheaveragetemperaturecloseto27c
ithasbeenshownthatformanyapplicationsinvolvingterrestrialalbedothealbedoataparticularsolarzenithanglecanreasonablybeapproximatedbytheproportionatesumoftwotermsthedirectionalhemisphericalreflectanceatthatsolarzenithangleandthebihemisphericalreflectancetheproportionconcernedbeingdefinedastheproportionofdiffuseillumination
albedocanthenbegivenas
directionalhemisphericalreflectanceissometimesreferredtoasblackskyalbedoandbihemisphericalreflectanceaswhiteskyalbedothesetermsareimportantbecausetheyallowthealbedotobecalculatedforanygivenilluminationconditionsfromaknowledgeoftheintrinsicpropertiesofthesurface
thealbedosofplanetssatellitesandasteroidscanbeusedtoinfermuchabouttheirpropertiesthestudyofalbedostheirdependenceonwavelengthlightinganglephaseangleandvariationintimecomprisesamajorpartoftheastronomicalfieldofphotometryforsmallandfarobjectsthatcannotberesolvedbytelescopesmuchofwhatweknowcomesfromthestudyoftheiralbedosforexampletheabsolutealbedocanindicatethesurfaceicecontentofoutersolarsystemobjectsthevariationofalbedowithphaseanglegivesinformationaboutregolithpropertieswhileunusuallyhighradaralbedoisindicativeofhighmetalliccontentinasteroids
enceladusamoonofsaturnhasoneofthehighestknownalbedosofanybodyinthesolarsystemwith99ofemradiationreflectedanothernotablehighalbedobodyiseriswithanalbedoof086manysmallobjectsintheoutersolarsystem
theoverallalbedoofthemoonisaround012butitisstronglydirectionalandnonlambertiandisplayingalsoastrongoppositioneffectwhilesuchreflectancepropertiesaredifferentfromthoseofanyterrestrialterrainstheyaretypicaloftheregolithsurfacesofairlesssolarsystembodies
twocommonalbedosthatareusedinastronomyarethevbandgeometricalbedomeasuringbrightnesswhenilluminationcomesfromdirectlybehindtheobserverandthebondalbedomeasuringtotalproportionofelectromagneticenergyreflectedtheirvaluescandiffersignificantlywhichisacommonsourceofconfusion
indetailedstudiesthedirectionalreflectancepropertiesofastronomicalbodiesareoftenexpressedintermsofthefivehapkeparameterswhichsemiempiricallydescribethevariationofalbedowithphaseangleincludingacharacterizationoftheoppositioneffectofregolithsurfaces
thecorrelationbetweenastronomicalgeometricalbedoabsolutemagnitudeanddiameteris
whereistheastronomicalalbedoisthediameterinkilometresandhistheabsolutemagnitude
albedoworksonasmallerscaletoopeoplewhoweardarkclothesinthesummertimeputthemselvesatagreaterriskofheatstrokethanthosewhowearlightercolorclothes
becausetreestendtohavealowalbedoremovingforestswouldtendtoincreasealbedoandtherebycouldproducelocalizedclimatecoolingignoringthelostevaporativecoolingeffectoftreescloudfeedbacksfurthercomplicatetheissueinseasonallysnowcoveredzoneswinteralbedosoftreelessareasare10to50higherthannearbyforestedareasbecausesnowdoesnotcoverthetreesasreadilydeciduoustreeshaveanalbedovalueofabout015to018whileconiferoustreeshaveavalueofabout009to015
studiesbythehadleycentrehaveinvestigatedtherelativegenerallywarmingeffectofalbedochangeandcoolingeffectofcarbonsequestrationonplantingforeststheyfoundthatnewforestsintropicalandmidlatitudeareastendedtocoolnewforestsinhighlatitudesegsiberiawereneutralorperhapswarming
snowalbedoscanbeashighas09thishoweverisfortheidealexamplefreshdeepsnowoverafeaturelesslandscapeoverantarcticatheyaveragealittlemorethan08ifamarginallysnowcoveredareawarmssnowtendstomeltloweringthealbedoandhenceleadingtomoresnowmelttheicealbedopositivefeedbackcryoconitepowderywindblowndustcontainingsootsometimesreducesalbedoonglaciersandicesheets
waterreflectslightverydifferentlyfromtypicalterrestrialmaterialsthereflectivityofawatersurfaceiscalculatedusingthefresnelequationsseegraphatthescaleofthewavelengthoflightevenwavywaterisalwayssmoothsothelightisreflectedinalocallyspecularmannernotdiffuselytheglintoflightoffwaterisacommonplaceeffectofthisatsmallanglesofincidentlightwavinessresultsinreducedreflectivitybecauseofthesteepnessofthereflectivityvsincidentanglecurveandalocallyincreasedaverageincidentangle
althoughthereflectivityofwaterisverylowatlowandmediumanglesofincidentlightitincreasestremendouslyathighanglesofincidentlightsuchasoccurontheilluminatedsideoftheearthneartheterminatorearlymorninglateafternoonandnearthepoleshoweverasmentionedabovewavinesscausesanappreciablereductionsincethelightspecularlyreflectedfromwaterdoesnotusuallyreachtheviewerwaterisusuallyconsideredtohaveaverylowalbedoinspiteofitshighreflectivityathighanglesofincidentlight
notethatwhitecapsonwaveslookwhiteandhavehighalbedobecausethewaterisfoamedupsotherearemanysuperimposedbubblesurfaceswhichreflectaddinguptheirreflectivitiesfreshblackiceexhibitsfresnelreflection
cloudalbedohassubstantialinfluenceoveratmospherictemperaturesdifferenttypesofcloudsexhibitdifferentreflectivitytheoreticallyranginginalbedofromaminimumofnear0toamaximumapproaching08onanygivendayabouthalfofearthiscoveredbycloudswhichreflectmoresunlightthanlandandwatercloudskeepearthcoolbyreflectingsunlightbuttheycanalsoserveasblanketstotrapwarmth
albedoandclimateinsomeareasareaffectedbyartificialcloudssuchasthosecreatedbythecontrailsofheavycommercialairlinertraffic
aerosolsveryfineparticlesdropletsintheatmospherehavebothdirectandindirecteffectsontheearthsradiativebalancethedirectalbedoeffectisgenerallytocooltheplanettheindirecteffecttheparticlesactascloudcondensationnucleiandtherebychangecloudpropertiesislesscertainaspertheeffectsare
anotheralbedorelatedeffectontheclimateisfromblackcarbonparticlesthesizeofthiseffectisdifficulttoquantifytheintergovernmentalpanelonclimatechangeestimatesthattheglobalmeanradiativeforcingforblackcarbonaerosolsfromfossilfuelsis02wmwitharange01to04wm
singlescatteringalbedoisusedtodefinescatteringofelectromagneticwavesonsmallparticlesitdependsonpropertiesofthematerialrefractiveindexthesizeoftheparticleorparticlesandthewavelengthoftheincomingradiation
anamedapluralaesisthefirstletterandavowelinthebasicmodernlatinalphabetitissimilartotheancientgreekletteralphafromwhichitderives
theearliestcertainancestorofaisalephalsocalledalephthefirstletterofthephoenicianalphabetwhichbyconsistingentirelyofconsonantsisanabjadratherthanatruealphabetinturntheoriginofalephmayhavebeenapictogramofanoxheadinegyptianhieroglyphs
in1600bcthephoenicianalphabetsletterhadalinearformthatservedasthebaseforsomelaterformsitsnamemusthavecorrespondedcloselytothehebreworarabicaleph
whentheancientgreeksadoptedthealphabettheyhadnousefortheglottalstopthefirstphonemeofthephoenicianpronunciationoftheletterandthesoundthattheletterdenotedinphoenicianandothersemiticlanguagessotheyusedanadaptationofthesigntorepresentthevowelandgaveitthesimilarnameofalphaintheearliestgreekinscriptionsafterthegreekdarkagesdatingtothe8thcenturybctheletterrestsuponitssidebutinthegreekalphabetoflatertimesitgenerallyresemblesthemoderncapitalletteralthoughmanylocalvarietiescanbedistinguishedbytheshorteningofonelegorbytheangleatwhichthecrosslineisset
theetruscansbroughtthegreekalphabettotheircivilizationintheitalianpeninsulaandlefttheletterunchangedtheromanslateradoptedtheetruscanalphabettowritethelatinlanguageandtheresultingletterwaspreservedinthemodernlatinalphabetusedtowritemanylanguagesincludingenglish
theletteracurrentlyrepresentssixdifferentvowelsoundsinenglishabyitselffrequentlydenotesthenearopenfrontunroundedvowelasinpadtheopenbackunroundedvowelasinfatheritsoriginallatinandgreeksoundacloserfurtherfrontedsoundasinharewhichdevelopedasthesoundprogressedfromfathertoaceinconcertwithalaterorthographicvowelthediphthongasinaceandmajorduetoeffectsofthegreatvowelshiftthemoreroundedforminwateroritscloselyrelatedcousinfoundinwas
inmostotherlanguagesthatusethelatinalphabetadenotesanopenfrontunroundedvowelintheinternationalphoneticalphabetvariantsofadenotevariousvowelsinxsampacapitaladenotestheopenbackunroundedvowelandlowercaseadenotestheopenfrontunroundedvowel
aisthethirdmostcommonlyusedletterinenglishandthesecondmostcommoninspanishandfrenchinonestudyonaverageabout368oflettersusedinenglishtendtobeaswhilethenumberis622inspanishand395infrench
aisoftenusedtodenotesomethingorsomeoneofabetterormoreprestigiousqualityorstatusaaorathebestgradethatcanbeassignedbyteachersforstudentsschoolworkagradeforcleanrestaurantsalistcelebritiesetcsuchassociationscanhaveamotivatingeffectasexposuretotheletterahasbeenfoundtoimproveperformancewhencomparedwithotherletters
alabamaisastatelocatedinthesoutheasternregionoftheunitedstatesitisborderedbytennesseetothenorthgeorgiatotheeastfloridaandthegulfofmexicotothesouthandmississippitothewestalabamaranks30thintotallandareaandrankssecondinthesizeofitsinlandwaterwaysthestateranks23rdinpopulationwith47millionresidentsin2009
fromtheamericancivilwaruntilworldwariialabamalikemanysouthernstatessufferedeconomichardshipinpartbecauseofcontinueddependenceonagriculturedespitethegrowthofmajorindustriesandurbancenterswhiteruralinterestsdominatedthestatelegislatureuntilthe1960swhileurbaninterestsandafricanamericanswereunderrepresentedfollowingworldwariialabamaexperiencedgrowthastheeconomyofthestatetransitionedfromagriculturetodiversifiedinterestsinheavymanufacturingmineralextractioneducationandtechnologyinadditiontheestablishmentorexpansionofmultiplemilitaryinstallationsprimarilythoseoftheusarmyandusairforceaddedtostatejobs
alabamaisunofficiallynicknamedtheyellowhammerstateafterthestatebirdalabamaisalsoknownastheheartofdixiethestatetreeisthelongleafpinethestatefloweristhecamelliathecapitalofalabamaismontgomerythelargestcitybypopulationisbirminghamthelargestcitybytotallandareaishuntsvilletheoldestcityismobilefoundedbyfrenchcolonists
thealabamapeopleamuskogeanspeakingtribewhosememberslivedjustbelowtheconfluenceofthecoosaandtallapoosariversontheupperreachesofthealabamariverservedastheetymologicalsourceofthenamesoftheriverandstateinthealabamalanguagethewordforanalabamapersonisalbaamoorvariouslyalbaamaoralbàamoindifferentdialectsthepluralformalabamapersonsisalbaamahathewordalabamaisbelievedtohaveoriginatedfromthechoctawlanguageandwaslateradoptedbythealabamatribeastheirnamethespellingofthewordvariessignificantlybetweensources
althoughtheoriginofalabamacouldbediscernedsourcesdisagreeonitsmeaningan1842articleinthejacksonvillerepublicanoriginatedtheideathatthemeaningwasherewerestthemeaningmayhavebeenclearersofthethicketwhichmayrefertoclearingoflandforcultivationortocollectingmedicinalplants
indigenouspeoplesofvaryingcultureslivedintheareaforthousandsofyearsbeforeeuropeancolonizationtradewiththenortheastviatheohioriverbeganduringtheburialmoundperiod1000bcad700andcontinueduntileuropeancontacttheagrarianmississippianculturecoveredmostofthestatefromad1000to1600withoneofitsmajorcentersbeingatthemoundvillearchaeologicalsiteinmoundvillealabamaanalysisofartifactsrecoveredfromarchaeologicalexcavationsatmoundvillewerethebasisofscholarsformulatingthecharacteristicsofthesoutheasternceremonialcomplexsecccontrarytopopularbelieftheseccappearstohavenodirectlinkstomesoamericanculturebutdevelopedindependentlytheceremonialcomplexrepresentsamajorcomponentofthereligionofthemississippianpeoplesitisoneoftheprimarymeansbywhichtheirreligionisunderstood
amongthehistoricaltribesofnativeamericanpeoplelivingintheareaofpresentdayalabamaatthetimeofeuropeancontactwereiroquoianspeakingcherokeeandthemuskogeanspeakingalabamaalibamuchickasawchoctawcreekkoasatiandmobile
thefrenchfoundedthefirsteuropeansettlementintheregionatoldmobilein1702theareawasfrenchfrom1702to1763partofbritishwestfloridafrom1763to1780thomasbassettwasthefirstbritishsettlerinthestatehesettlednearwhatisnowtombigbeeriverinwashingtoncountyalabamabecamepartofspanishwestfloridafrom1780to1810partoftheindependentrepublicofwestfloridaforashorttime90daysannexedbytheusandaddedtotheterritoryoforleans1810andfinallyaddedtothemississippiterritoryin1812throughouttheselaterdevelopmentshoweverthespanishhadkeptanominalalthoughlargelyignoredgovernmentalpresenceintheregionbasedoutofmobilewhenandrewjacksonsforcesoccupiedmobilein1814whilepreparingforthebattleofneworleanshedemonstratedtheunitedstatesdefactoauthorityovertheregioneffectivelyendingspanishgovernancethoughnotitsclaimwhilegaininganunencumberedpassagetothegulf
theareamakinguptodaysnorthernandcentralalabamaknownastheyazoolandshadbeenclaimedbytheprovinceofgeorgiaafter1763followingtherevolutionarywaritremainedapartofthestateofgeorgiaalthoughheavilydisputedconflictingclaimstotheareawereheldfirstbyseveralnativeamericantribesmostnotablythechickamaugacherokeeandyazoobyotherstatesegsouthcarolinaandbytheusfederalgovernmentbritainandspainin1802theregionwasjoinedtothemississippiterritoryindividualstatehoodwasdelayedhoweverbytheterritoryslackofacoastline
alabamabecamethetwentysecondstateadmittedtotheunionin1819partofthefrontierinthe1820sand1830sitsconstitutionprovidedforuniversalsuffrageforwhitemensettlersrapidlyarrivedtotakeadvantageofthefertilesoilsoutheasternplantersandtradersfromtheuppersouthbroughtslaveswiththemasthecottonplantationsexpandedtheeconomyofthecentralblackbeltnamedforitsdarkproductivesoilwasbuiltaroundlargecottonplantationswhoseownerswealthgrewlargelyfromslavelabortheareaalsodrewmanypoordisfranchisedpeoplewhobecamesubsistencefarmersthe1860censusrecordsshowthatenslavedafricanscomprised45ofthestatestotalpopulationof964201therewereonly2690freepersonsofcolorlivinginalabamaatthetime
from1826to1846tuscaloosaservedasthecapitalofalabamaonjanuary301846thealabamalegislatureannouncedthatithadvotedtoremovethecapitalcityfromtuscaloosatomontgomerythefirstlegislativesessioninthenewcapitalmetindecember1847intimeacapitolbuildingwaserectedunderthedirectionofaphiladelphiapennsylvaniaarchitecttheoriginalstructureburntdownin1849butwasrebuiltin1851followingtheoriginalplans
onjanuary111861alabamadeclareditssecessionfromtheunionandjoinedtheconfederatestatesofamericawhilefewbattleswerefoughtinthestatealabamacontributedabout120000soldierstotheamericancivilwaralabamasslaveswerefreedbythe13thamendmentin1865duringreconstructionthenewstatelegislatorscreatedapublicschoolsystemforthefirsttimeaswellasestablishingsomewelfareinstitutionstohelpitspeoplealabamawasofficiallyrestoredtotheunionin1868
afterthecivilwarthestatewasstillchieflyagriculturalwithaneconomytiedtocottonplantersresistedworkingwithfreelaborduringreconstructionandsoughttoreestablishcontrolsoverfreedmenintheearlyyearsthekukluxklanhadnumerousindependentchaptersinalabamathatattackedfreedmenandotherrepublicansafteritwassuppressedinsurgentwhitesorganizedparamilitarygroupssuchastheredshirtsandwhiteleaguethatactedmoreopenlytosuppressblackvotingregainingpowerbythelate1870sinthelastdecadeofthe19thcenturywhitedemocratspassedelectorallawsdisfranchisemostblacksandmanypoorwhiteshavingregainedpowerinthestatelegislaturedemocratspassedjimcrowlawsincludingracialsegregationinpublicfacilitiestorestorewhitesupremacyinthesociety
in1875thestatepassedtheblaineamendmenttoprohibitpublicmoneyfrombeingusedtofinancecatholicschools
thenew1901constitutionofalabamaeffectivelydisfranchisedafricanamericansandmanypoorwhitesthroughvotingrestrictionsincludingliteracyrequirementswhiletheplanterclasshadpersuadedpoorwhitestosupporttheselegislativeeffortsthenewrestrictionsresultedindisfranchisingpoorwhitesaswellduemostlytoimpositionofacumulativepolltax
in190014blackbeltcountieshadmorethan79000votersontherollsbyjune11903thenumberofregisteredvotershaddroppedto1081in1900alabamahadmorethan181000africanamericanseligibletovoteby1903only2980hadqualifiedtoregisteralthoughatleast74000blackvoterswereliterate
by1941atotalofmorewhitesthanblackshadbeendisfranchised600000whitesto520000blacksnearlyallafricanamericanslosttheabilitytovote
thedisfranchisementwasendedbyafricanamericansleadingthecivilrightsmovementandgainingfederallegislationinthemid1960stoprotecttheirvotingandcivilrightsthevotingrightsactof1965alsoprotectedthesuffrageofpoorwhites
theruraldominatedalabamalegislatureconsistentlyunderfundedschoolsandservicesforthedisfranchisedafricanamericansinthesegregatedstatebutdidnotrelievethemofpayingtaxescontinuedracialdiscriminationagriculturaldepressionandthefailureofthecottoncropsduetobollweevilinfestationledtensofthousandsofafricanamericanstoseekopportunitiesinnortherncitiestheyleftalabamaintheearly20thcenturyaspartofthegreatmigrationtoindustrialjobsandbetterfuturesinnorthernindustrialcitiesthepopulationgrowthrateinalabamaseehistoricalpopulationstablebelowdroppedbynearlyhalffrom1910to1920reflectingtheeffectofemigration
atthesametimemanyruralwhitesandblacksmigratedtothecityofbirminghamforworkinnewindustrialjobsitexperiencedsuchrapidgrowththatitwasnicknamedthemagiccitybythe1920sbirminghamwasthe19thlargestcityintheusandheldmorethan30ofthepopulationofthestateheavyindustryandminingwerethebasisoftheeconomy
industrialdevelopmentrelatedtothedemandsofworldwariibroughtprosperitycottonfadedinimportanceasthestatedevelopedamanufacturingandservicebaseinthe1960sundergovernorgeorgewallacemanywhitesinthestateopposedfederalintegrationeffortsinschoolsandpublicfacilities
despitemassivepopulationchangesinthestatefrom1901to1961theruraldominatedlegislaturerefusedtoreapportionhouseandsenateseatsbasedonpopulationtheyheldontooldrepresentationtomaintainpoliticalandeconomicpowerinagriculturalareasinadditionthestatelegislaturegerrymanderedthefewbirminghamlegislativeseatstoensureelectionbypersonslivingoutsidebirmingham
oneresultwasthatjeffersoncountycontainingbirminghamsindustrialandeconomicpowerhousecontributedmorethanonethirdofalltaxrevenuetothestatebutdidnotreceiveaproportionalamountinservicesurbaninterestswereconsistentlyunderrepresentedinthelegislaturea1960studynotedthatbecauseofruraldominationaminorityofabout25percentofthetotalstatepopulationisinmajoritycontrolofthealabamalegislature
africanamericanswerepresumedpartialtorepublicansforhistoricalreasonsbuttheyweredisfranchisedwhitealabamansfeltbittertowardstherepublicanpartyintheaftermathofthecivilwarandreconstructionthesefactorscreatedalongstandingtraditionthatanycandidatewhowantedtobeviablewithwhitevotershadtorunasademocratregardlessofpoliticalbeliefs
duringthecivilrightsmovementafricanamericansachievedaprotectionofvotingandothercivilrightsthroughthepassageofthenationalcivilrightsactof1964andthevotingrightsactof1965dejuresegregationendedinthestatesasjimcrowlawswereinvalidatedorrepealed
underthevotingrightsactof1965caseswerefiledinfederalcourtstoforcealabamatoproperlyredistrictbypopulationboththehouseandsenateofthestatelegislaturein1972forthefirsttimesince1901thelegislatureimplementedthealabamaconstitutionsprovisionforperiodicredistrictingbasedonpopulationthisbenefitedtheurbanareasthathaddevelopedaswellasallinthepopulationwhohadbeenunderrepresentedformorethan60years
after1972thestateswhitevotersshiftedmuchoftheirsupporttorepublicancandidatesinpresidentialelectionsasalsooccurredinneighboringsouthernstatessince1990themajorityofwhitesinthestatehavevotedincreasinglyrepublicaninstateelectionsin2010republicanswoncontrolofbothhousesofthelegislatureforthefirsttimein136years
alabamaisthethirtiethlargeststateintheunitedstateswithoftotalarea319oftheareaiswatermakingalabamatwentythirdintheamountofsurfacewateralsogivingitthesecondlargestinlandwaterwaysystemintheunitedstatesaboutthreefifthsofthelandareaisagentleplainwithageneraldescenttowardsthemississippiriverandthegulfofmexicothenorthalabamaregionismostlymountainouswiththetennesseerivercuttingalargevalleycreatingnumerouscreeksstreamsriversmountainsandlakes
areasinalabamaadministeredbythenationalparkserviceincludehorseshoebendnationalmilitaryparknearalexandercitylittlerivercanyonnationalpreservenearfortpaynerussellcavenationalmonumentinbridgeporttuskegeeairmennationalhistoricsiteintuskegeeandtuskegeeinstitutenationalhistoricsiteneartuskegeeadditionallyalabamahasfournationalforestsconecuhtalladegatuskegeeandwilliambbankheadalabamaalsocontainsthenatcheztraceparkwaytheselmatomontgomerynationalhistorictrailandthetrailoftearsnationalhistorictrailanotablenaturalwonderinalabamaisnaturalbridgerockthelongestnaturalbridgeeastoftherockieslocatedjustsouthofhaleyville
awidemeteoriteimpactcraterislocatedinelmorecountyjustnorthofmontgomerythisisthewetumpkacraterwhichisthesiteofalabamasgreatestnaturaldisasterawidemeteoritehittheareaabout80millionyearsagoin2002christiankoeberlwiththeinstituteofgeochemistryuniversityofviennapublishedevidenceandestablishedthesiteasaninternationallyrecognizedimpactcrater
thestateisclassifiedashumidsubtropicalcfaunderthekoppenclimateclassificationtheaverageannualtemperatureis64f18ctemperaturestendtobewarmerinthesouthernpartofthestatewithitsproximitytothegulfofmexicowhilethenorthernpartsofthestateespeciallyintheappalachianmountainsinthenortheasttendtobeslightlycoolergenerallyalabamahasveryhotsummersandmildwinterswithcopiousprecipitationthroughouttheyearalabamareceivesanaverageofofrainfallannuallyandenjoysalengthygrowingseasonofupto300daysinthesouthernpartofthestate
summersinalabamaareamongthehottestintheunitedstateswithhightemperaturesaveragingoverthroughoutthesummerinsomepartsofthestatealabamaisalsopronetotropicalstormsandevenhurricanesareasofthestatefarawayfromthegulfarenotimmunetotheeffectsofthestormswhichoftendumptremendousamountsofrainastheymoveinlandandweaken
southalabamareportsmanythunderstormsthegulfcoastaroundmobilebayaveragesbetween70and80daysperyearwiththunderreportedthisactivitydecreasessomewhatfurthernorthinthestatebuteventhefarnorthofthestatereportsthunderonabout60daysperyearoccasionallythunderstormsareseverewithfrequentlightningandlargehailthecentralandnorthernpartsofthestatearemostvulnerabletothistypeofstormalabamaranksseventhinthenumberofdeathsfromlightningandninthinthenumberofdeathsfromlightningstrikespercapita
alabamaalongwithkansashasthemostreportedef5tornadoesofanystateaccordingtostatisticsfromthenationalclimaticdatacenterfortheperiodjanuary11950tooctober312006severallongtrackedf5tornadoeshavecontributedtoalabamareportingmoretornadofatalitiesthananyotherstateevensurpassingtexaswhichhasamuchlargerareawithintornadoalleythestatesuffereddamageinthesuperoutbreakofapril1974andtheapril25282011tornadooutbreak
thepeakseasonfortornadoesvariesfromthenortherntosouthernpartsofthestatealabamaisoneofthefewplacesintheworldthathasasecondarytornadoseasoninnovemberanddecemberalongwiththespringsevereweatherseasonthenorthernpartofthestatealongthetennesseevalleyisoneoftheareasintheusmostvulnerabletoviolenttornadoestheareaofalabamaandmississippimostaffectedbytornadoesissometimesreferredtoasdixiealleyasdistinctfromthetornadoalleyofthesouthernplains
wintersaregenerallymildinalabamaastheyarethroughoutmostofthesoutheasternunitedstateswithaveragejanuarylowtemperaturesaroundinmobileandaroundinbirminghamalthoughsnowisarareeventinmuchofalabamaareasofthestatenorthofmontgomerymayreceiveadustingofsnowafewtimeseverywinterwithanoccasionalmoderatelyheavysnowfalleveryfewyearshistoricsnowfalleventsincludenewyearseve1963snowstormandthe1993stormofthecenturytheannualaveragesnowfallforthebirminghamareaisperyearinthesoutherngulfcoastsnowfallislessfrequentsometimesgoingseveralyearswithoutanysnowfall
theunitedstatescensusbureauasofjuly12008estimatedalabamaspopulationat4661900whichrepresentsanincreaseof214545or48sincethelastcensusin2000thisincludesanaturalincreasesincethelastcensusof121054peoplethatis502457birthsminus381403deathsandanincreaseduetonetmigrationof104991peopleintothestateimmigrationfromoutsidetheunitedstatesresultedinanetincreaseof31180peopleandmigrationwithinthecountryproducedanetgainof73811peoplethestatehad108000foreignborn24ofthestatepopulationofwhichanestimated222wereillegalimmigrants24000
thecenterofpopulationofalabamaislocatedinchiltoncountyoutsideofthetownofjemison
accordingtothe2010uscensusalabamahadapopulationof4779736intermsofraceandethnicitythestatewas685white670nonhispanicwhitealone262blackorafricanamerican06americanindianandalaskanative11asian01nativehawaiianandotherpacificislander20fromsomeotherraceand15fromtwoormoreraceshispanicsorlatinosofanyracemadeup39ofthepopulation
thelargestreportedancestrygroupsinalabamaareafricanamerican262english236irish77german57andscotsirish20inthe2000census621080peopleclaimedtobeofamericanancestrymostthemareofoverwhelminglyenglishextractionhowevermostenglishamericansidentifysimplyashavingamericanethnicitybecausetheirrootshavebeeninnorthamericaaslongastheearly1600sdemographersestimatethatroughly23ofpeopleinalabamaareofpredominantlyenglishancestrytherearealsomanymorepeopleinalabamaofscotsirishoriginsthanareselfreported
in1984underthedavisstrongactalabamaestablishedastateindiancommissionandofficiallyrecognizedsevenamericanindiantribesincludingtheechotacherokeetribeofalabamawhichisa501c3groupitismadeupofdescendantsofthechickamaugacherokeeandotherswhomanagedtoevadeindianremovalinthe1830sworkingwithauburnuniversitythetribehasbegunarevivalofthecherokeelanguage
alabamaislocatedinthemiddleofthebiblebeltamajorityofpeopleinalabamatodayidentifyasprotestantasof2000thethreelargestdenominationalgroupsinalabamaareevangelicalprotestantmainlineprotestantandcatholicthesouthernbaptistconventionhasthehighestnumberofadherentsinalabamawith1380121followedbytheunitedmethodistchurchwith327734membersandthecatholicchurchwith150647adherents
ina2007surveynearly70ofrespondentscouldnameallfourofthechristiangospelsofthosewhoindicatedareligiouspreference59saidtheypossessedafullunderstandingoftheirfaithandneedednofurtherlearningina2007poll92ofalabamiansreportedhavingatleastsomeconfidenceinchurchesinthestateinthe2008americanreligiousidentificationsurvey80ofalabamarespondentsreportedtheirreligionaschristianotherthancatholic6ascatholicand11ashavingnoreligionatall
acentersfordiseasecontrolandpreventionstudyshowedthatalabamawasoneoftheworstinthecountryforobesitywithmostcountieshavingover29ofadultsobeseexceptfortenwhichexceeded26residentswereleastlikelyofanystateinthenationtoexercisealabamahasoneofthehighestincidentsofadultonsetdiabetesinthecountryexceeding10ofadults
thestatehasinvestedinaerospaceeducationhealthcareandbankingandvariousheavyindustriesincludingautomobilemanufacturingmineralextractionsteelproductionandfabrication
accordingtotheunitedstatesbureauofeconomicanalysisthe2008totalgrossstateproductwas170billionor29411percapitaalabamas2008gdpincreased07fromthepreviousyearthesinglelargestincreasecameintheareaofinformationin1999percapitaincomeforthestatewas18189
asofseptember2010thestatesunemploymentrateis89
alabamasagriculturaloutputsincludepoultryandeggscattleplantnurseryitemspeanutscottongrainssuchascornandsorghumvegetablesmilksoybeansandpeachesalthoughknownasthecottonstatealabamaranksbetweeneighthandtenthinnationalcottonproductionaccordingtovariousreportswithtexasgeorgiaandmississippicomprisingthetopthree
alabamasindustrialoutputsincludeironandsteelproductsincludingcastironandsteelpipepaperlumberandwoodproductsminingmostlycoalplasticproductscarsandtrucksandapparelalsoalabamaproducesaerospaceandelectronicproductsmostlyinthehuntsvillearealocationofnasasgeorgecmarshallspaceflightcenterandtheusarmyaviationandmissilecommandheadquarteredatredstonearsenal
mostalabamaseconomicgrowthisduetothestatesexpandingautomotivemanufacturingindustrylocatedinthestatearehondamanufacturingofalabamahyundaimotormanufacturingalabamamercedesbenzusinternationalandtoyotamotormanufacturingalabamaaswellastheirvarioussupplierssince1993theautomobileindustryhasgeneratedmorethan67800newjobsinthestatealabamacurrentlyranks4thinthenationinautomobileoutput
steelproducersnucorssabthyssenkruppandussteelhavefacilitiesinalabamaandemployover10000peopleinmay2007germansteelmakerthyssenkruppselectedalabamafora37billionsteelproductionplantwiththepromiseof2700permanentjobswhenthyssenkruppsnewfacilitiesreachfullproductioncapacityalabamaisexpectedtobecomethethirdlargeststeelproducingstateinthecountrybehindindianaandpennsylvania
anestimated100000touristsannuallyfromothercountriesvisitthestateincludingfromcanadaenglandgermanyandjapanin2006223milliontouristsspent83billionprovidinganestimated162000jobsinthestate
uabhospitalistheonlylevelitraumacenterinalabamauabisthelargestemployerinalabamawithaworkforceofabout20000
alabamahastheheadquartersofregionsfinancialcorporationbbvacompassandsuperiorbancorpbirminghambasedcompassbanchshareswasacquiredbyspanishbasedbbvainseptember2007althoughtheheadquartersofbbvacompassremainsinbirminghaminnovember2006regionsfinancialcompleteditsmergerwithamsouthbancorporationwhichwasalsoheadquarteredinbirminghamsouthtrustcorporationanotherlargebankheadquarteredinbirminghamwasacquiredbywachoviain2004for143billionthecitystillhasmajoroperationsforwachoviaanditsnowpostoperatingbankwellsfargowhichincludesaregionalheadquartersaoperationscentercampusanda400milliondollardatacenternearlyadozensmallerbanksarealsoheadquarteredinthebirminghamsuchassuperiorbancorpservisfirstandnewsouthfederalsavingsbankbirminghamalsoservesastheheadquartersforseverallargeinvestmentmanagementcompaniesincludingharbertmanagementcorporation
telecommunicationsprovideratamptformerlybellsouthalsohasamajorpresenceinalabamawithseverallargeofficesinbirminghamthecompanyhasover6000employeesandmorethan1200contractemployees
manycommercialtechnologycompaniesareheadquarteredinhuntsvillesuchasthenetworkaccesscompanyadtrancomputergraphicscompanyintergraphdesignandmanufacturerofitinfrastructureavocentandtelecommunicationsproviderdeltacomcinrammanufacturesanddistributes20thcenturyfoxdvdsandbluraydiscsoutoftheirhuntsvilleplant
rustinternationalhasgrowntoincludebrasfieldampgorriebeampkhoarconstructionandblharbertinternationalwhichallroutinelyareincludedintheengineeringnewsrecordlistsoftopdesigninternationalconstructionandengineeringfirmsrustinternationalwasacquiredin2000bywashingtongroupinternationalwhichwasinturnacquiredbysanfranciscobasedurscorporationin2007
theportofmobilealabamasonlysaltwaterportisabusyseaportonthegulfofmexicowithinlandwaterwayaccesstothemidwestbywayofthetennesseetombigbeewaterwaytheportofmobileiscurrentlythe9thlargestbytonnageintheunitedstates
bargetransportationinandoutoftheportoftuscaloosaandothercommercialnavigationmaketheblackwarriorriverusefulinthestateofalabama
thefoundationaldocumentforalabamasgovernmentisthealabamaconstitutionwhichwasratifiedin1901atalmost800amendmentsand310000wordsitistheworldslongestconstitutionandisroughlyfortytimesthelengthoftheusconstitutionthereisasignificantmovementtorewriteandmodernizealabamasconstitutionthismovementisbaseduponthefactthatalabamasconstitutionhighlycentralizespowerinmontgomeryandleavespracticallynopowerinlocalhandsanypolicychangesproposedaroundthestatemustbeapprovedbytheentirealabamalegislatureandfrequentlybystatereferendumonecriticismofthecurrentconstitutionclaimsthatitscomplexityandlengthwereintentionaltocodifysegregationandracism
alabamaisdividedintothreeequalbranchesthelegislativebranchisthealabamalegislatureabicameralassemblycomposedofthealabamahouseofrepresentativeswith105membersandthealabamasenatewith35membersthelegislatureisresponsibleforwritingdebatingpassingordefeatingstatelegislation
theexecutivebranchisresponsiblefortheexecutionandoversightoflawsitisheadedbythegovernorofalabamaothermembersofexecutivebranchincludethecabinettheattorneygeneralofalabamathealabamasecretaryofstatethealabamacommissionerofagricultureandindustriesthealabamastatetreasurerandthestateauditorofalabama
thejudicialbranchisresponsibleforinterpretingtheconstitutionandapplyingthelawinstatecriminalandcivilcasesthehighestcourtisthesupremecourtofalabama
alabamaleviesa24or5percentpersonalincometaxdependingupontheamountearnedandfilingstatustaxpayersarenotallowedtodeducttheirfederalincometaxfromtheiralabamastatetaxbutcandeductfederalsocialsecurityandmedicaretaxes
thestatesgeneralsalestaxrateis4thecollectionratecouldbesubstantiallyhigherdependinguponadditionalcityandcountysalestaxesforexamplethetotalsalestaxrateinmobileis10andthereisanadditionalrestauranttaxof1whichmeansthatadinerinmobilewouldpaya11taxonamealsalesandexcisetaxesinalabamaaccountfor51ofallstateandlocalrevenuecomparedwithanaverageofabout36nationwidealabamaisalsooneofthefewremainingstatesthatleviesataxonfoodandmedicinealabamasincometaxonpoorworkingfamiliesisamongthenationsveryhighestalabamaistheonlystatethatleviesincometaxonafamilyoffourwithincomeaslowas4600whichisbarelyonequarterofthefederalpovertylinealabamasthresholdisthelowestamongthe41statesandthedistrictofcolumbiawithincometaxes
thecorporateincometaxrateiscurrently65theoverallfederalstateandlocaltaxburdeninalabamaranksthestateasthesecondleasttaxburdenedstateinthecountrypropertytaxesarethelowestintheunitedstatesthecurrentstateconstitutionrequiresavoterreferendumtoraisepropertytaxes
sincealabamastaxstructurelargelydependsonconsumerspendingitissubjecttohighvariablebudgetstructureforexamplein2003alabamahadanannualbudgetdeficitashighas670million
alabamahas67countieseachcountyhasitsownelectedlegislativebranchusuallycalledthecountycommissionwhichusuallyalsohasexecutiveauthorityinthecountybecauseoftherestraintsplacedinthealabamaconstitutionallbutsevencountiesjeffersonleemobilemadisonmontgomeryshelbyandtuscaloosainthestatehavelittletonohomeruleinsteadmostcountiesinthestatemustlobbythelocallegislationcommitteeofthestatelegislaturetogetsimplelocalpoliciessuchaswastedisposaltolandusezoning
alabamaisanalcoholicbeveragecontrolstatethegovernmentholdsamonopolyonthesaleofalcoholhowevercountiescandeclarethemselvesdrythestatedoesnotsellalcoholinthoseareas
thecurrentgovernorofthestateisrepublicanrobertbentleythelieutenantgovernorisrepublicankayiveythechiefjusticeofthealabamasupremecourtisdemocratsuebellcobbtherepublicanpartycurrentlyholdsamajorityinbothhousesofthelegislaturethelegislaturehasthepowertooverrideagubernatorialvetobyasimplemajoritymoststatelegislaturesrequireatwothirdsmajoritytooverrideaveto
duringreconstructionfollowingtheamericancivilwaralabamawasoccupiedbyfederaltroopsofthethirdmilitarydistrictundergeneraljohnpopein1874thepoliticalcoalitionknownastheredeemerstookcontrolofthestategovernmentfromtherepublicansinpartbysuppressingtheafricanamericanvote
after1890acoalitionofwhitespassedlawstosegregateanddisenfranchiseblackresidentsaprocesscompletedinprovisionsofthe1901constitutionprovisionswhichdisfranchisedafricanamericansalsodisfranchisedpoorwhiteshoweverby1941morewhitesthanblackshadbeendisfranchised600000to520000althoughtheimpactwasgreaterontheafricanamericancommunityasalmostallofitscitizensweredisfranchised
from1901throughthe1960sthestatedidnotredrawelectiondistrictsaspopulationgrewandshiftedwithinthestatetheresultwasaruralminoritythatdominatedstatepoliticsuntilaseriesofcourtcasesrequiredredistrictingin1972
alabamastatepoliticsgainednationwideandinternationalattentioninthe1950sand1960sduringtheamericancivilrightsmovementwhenmajoritywhitesbureaucraticallyandattimesviolentlyresistedprotestsforelectoralandsocialreformgeorgewallacethestatesonlyfourtermgovernorwasacontroversialfigureonlywiththepassageofthefederalcivilrightsactof1964andvotingrightsactof1965didafricanamericansregainsuffrageandothercivilrights
in2007thealabamalegislaturepassedandrepublicangovernorbobrileysignedaresolutionexpressingprofoundregretoverslaveryanditslingeringimpactinasymbolicceremonythebillwassignedinthealabamastatecapitolwhichhousedcongressoftheconfederatestatesofamerica
withthedisfranchisementofafricanamericansthestatebecamepartofthesolidsouthaonepartysysteminwhichthedemocraticpartybecameessentiallytheonlypoliticalpartyineverysouthernstatefornearly100yearslocalandstateelectionsinalabamaweredecidedinthedemocraticpartyprimarywithgenerallyonlytokenrepublicanchallengersrunninginthegeneralelection
developmentsinthe1986democraticprimaryelectionledtotheelectionofthefirstrepublicangovernorinmorethan100yearsandstartedrepublicansontheroadtopoliticaldominanceinthestateonemillionvoterscastballotsinthe1986democraticprimarythethenincumbentlieutenantgovernorbillbaxleylostthedemocraticnominationforgovernorbyapproximately8000votestothenfellowdemocraticattorneygeneralcharlesgraddickthestatedemocraticpartysfivememberelectioncontestcommitteeinvalidatedtheprimaryelectionresultclaimingthatthousandsofrepublicanshadillegallyvotedinthedemocraticprimaryforgraddickandasaresulttheyremovedgraddickfromtheballotthedemocraticpartythenplacedbaxleysnameontheballotasthedemocraticcandidateinsteadofgraddickthevotersofthestaterevoltedatwhattheyperceivedasdisenfranchisementoftheirrighttovoteandelectedtherepublicanchallengerguyhuntasgovernorhunthadbeennominatedinastatewiderepublicanprimarythathad28000participantscomparedtothe1000000plusofthedemocraticprimarythatnovemberhuntbecamethefirstrepublicangovernorelectedinalabamasincereconstructionwhenhewon57ofthevotestatewideagainstbaxley
since1986republicanshavewonsixofthesevengovernorselectionsandbecomeincreasinglycompetitiveinalabamapoliticsatmanylevelstheycurrentlycontrolbothseatsintheussenateandsixoutofthestatessevencongressionalseats
republicansholdallnineseatsonthealabamasupremecourtandalltenseatsonthestateappellatecourtsuntil1994norepublicansheldanyofthecourtseatsthischangealsobeganlikelyinpartduetothesameperceptionbyvotersofdemocraticpartyeffortstodisenfranchisevotersagainin1994inthatgeneralelectionthethenincumbentchiefjusticeofalabamasonnyhornsbyrefusedtoleaveofficeafterlosingtheelectionbyapproximately3000votestorepublicanperryoliverhoopersrhornsbysuedalabamaincourtanddefiantlyremainedinofficeformorethanayearbeforefinallygivinguptheseatafterlosingincourtthisultimatelywouldleadtoacollapseofsupportfordemocratsattheballotboxinthenextthreeorfourelectioncyclesandultimatelylosingthelastofthenineteencourtseatsfollowingtheresignationofthelastdemocratinaugust2011
todayrepublicansalsoholdallsevenofthestatewideelectedexecutivebranchofficesrepublicansalsoholdsixoftheeightelectedseatsonthealabamastateboardofeducationin2010republicanstooklargemajoritiesofbothchambersofthestatelegislaturegivingthemcontrolofthatbodyforthefirsttimein136yearshoweverdemocratsholdoneofthethreeseatsonthealabamapublicservicecommission
onlytworepublicanlieutenantgovernorshavebeenelectedsincereconstructionstevewindomandkayiveythecurrentlieutenantgovernorwindomservedasltgovernorunderdemocraticgovdonsiegelmanbefore2011thelasttimethatalabamahadagovernorandlieutenantgovernorofthesamepartywastheperiodbetween1983and1987whengeorgewallacewasservinghisfourthtermasgovernorandbillbaxleywasservingaslieutenantgovernorbothweredemocrats
inalabamathemembersofthelegislaturetakeofficeimmediatelyafterthenovemberelectionsbutthestatewideofficialssuchasthegovernorlieutenantgovernorattorneygeneralandotherconstitutionalofficestakeofficeinthefollowingjanuary
manylocalofficescountycommissionersboardsofeducationtaxassessorstaxcollectorsetcinthestatearestillheldbydemocratslocalelectionsinmostruralcountiesaregenerallydecidedinthedemocraticprimaryandlocalelectionsinmetropolitanandsuburbancountiesaregenerallydecidedintherepublicanprimaryalthoughthereareexceptions
from1876through1956alabamasupportedonlydemocraticpresidentialcandidatesbylargemarginsin1960thedemocratswonwithjohnfkennedyontheballotbutthedemocraticelectorsfromalabamagave6oftheir11electoralvotesasaprotesttoharrybyrdin1964republicanbarrygoldwatercarriedthestate
inthe1968presidentialelectionalabamasupportednativesonandamericanindependentpartycandidategeorgewallaceoverbothrichardnixonandhuberthumphreywallacewastheofficialdemocraticcandidateinalabamawhilehumphreywaslistedasthenationaldemocraticin1976democraticcandidatejimmycarterfromgeorgiacarriedthestatetheregionandthenationbutdemocraticcontroloftheregionslippedafterthat
since1980conservativealabamavotershaveincreasinglyvotedforrepublicancandidatesatthefederallevelespeciallyinpresidentialelectionsbycontrastdemocraticcandidateshavebeenelectedtomanystatelevelofficesanduntil2010comprisedalongstandingmajorityinthealabamalegislatureseedixiecrat
in2004georgewbushwonalabamasnineelectoralvotesbyamarginof25percentagepointswith625ofthevotemostlywhitevotersthe11countiesthatvoteddemocraticwereblackbeltcountieswhereafricanamericansarethemajorityracialgroup
thestatestwoussenatorsarejeffersonbsessionsiiiandrichardcshelbybothrepublicans
publicprimaryandsecondaryeducationinalabamaisundertheoverviewofthealabamastateboardofeducationaswellaslocaloversightby67countyschoolboardsand60cityboardsofeducationtogether1541individualschoolsprovideeducationfor743364elementaryandsecondarystudents
publicschoolfundingisappropriatedthroughthealabamalegislaturethroughtheeducationtrustfundinfy20062007alabamaappropriated3775163578forprimaryandsecondaryeducationthatrepresentedanincreaseof444736387overthepreviousfiscalyear
whilealabamaspubliceducationsystemhasimproveditlagsbehindinachievementcomparedtootherstatesaccordingtouscensusdataalabamashighschoolgraduationrate75isthesecondlowestintheunitedstatesaftermississippithelargesteducationalgainswereamongpeoplewithsomecollegeeducationbutwithoutdegrees
alabamasprogramsofhighereducationinclude14fouryearpublicuniversitiestwoyearcommunitycollegesand17privateundergraduateandgraduateuniversitiesinthestatearethreemedicalschoolsuniversityofalabamaatbirminghamuniversityofalabamaanduniversityofsouthalabamatwoveterinarycollegesauburnuniversityandtuskegeeuniversityadentalschooluniversityofalabamaatbirminghamanoptometrycollegeuniversityofalabamaatbirminghamtwopharmacyschoolsauburnuniversityandsamforduniversityandfivelawschoolsuniversityofalabamaschooloflawbirminghamschooloflawcumberlandschooloflawmileslawschoolandthethomasgoodejonesschooloflawpublicpostsecondaryeducationinalabamaisoverseenbythealabamacommissiononhighereducationcollegesanduniversitiesinalabamaofferdegreeprogramsfromtwoyearassociatedegreesto16doctorallevelprograms
thelargestsinglecampusistheuniversityofalabamalocatedintuscaloosawith31747enrolledforfall2011troyuniversityisthelargestinstitutioninthestateenrolling29689studentsasof2010acrossfouralabamacampusestroydothanmontgomeryandphenixcityaswellassixtylearningsitesinseventeenotherstatesandelevenothercountriestheoldestinstitutionsarethepublicuniversityofnorthalabamainflorenceandthecatholicchurchaffiliatedspringhillcollegeinmobilebothfoundedin1830
accreditationofacademicprogramsisthroughthesouthernassociationofcollegesandschoolssacsaswellasothersubjectfocusednationalandinternationalaccreditationagenciessuchastheassociationforbiblicalhighereducationabhethecouncilonoccupationaleducationcoeandtheaccreditingcouncilforindependentcollegesandschoolsacics
accordingtothe2011usnewsandworldreportalabamahadthreeuniversitiesrankedinthetop100publicschoolsinamericauniversityofalabamaat31auburnuniversityat36anduniversityofalabamaatbirminghamat73
alabamahasseveralminorleagueprofessionalteamsincludingfourminorleaguebaseballteams
majorairportsinalabamaincludebirminghamshuttlesworthinternationalairportbhmhuntsvilleinternationalairporthsvdothanregionalairportdhnmobileregionalairportmobmontgomeryregionalairportmgmmuscleshoalsnorthwestalabamaregionalairportmsltuscaloosaregionalairporttclandpryorfieldregionalairportdcu
forrailtransportamtrakschedulesthecrescentadailypassengertrainrunningfromnewyorktoneworleanswithstopsatannistonbirminghamandtuscaloosa
alabamahasfivemajorinterstateroadsthatcrossthestatei65runsnorthsouthroughlythroughthemiddleofthestatei59i20travelsfromthecentralwestbordertobirminghamwherei59continuestothenortheastcornerofthestateandi20continueseasttowardsatlantai85originatesinmontgomeryandrunseastnortheasttothegeorgiaborderprovidingamainthoroughfaretoatlantaandi10traversesthesouthernmostportionofthestaterunningfromwesttoeastthroughmobileanotherinterstateroadi22iscurrentlyunderconstructionwhencompletedaround2012itwillconnectbirminghamwithmemphistennesseeseveralushighwaysalsopassthroughthestatesuchasus11us29us31us43us72us78us80us82us84us90us98us231us278us280andus431
therearefourtollroadsinthestatealabamariverparkwayinmontgomeryblackwarriorparkwayintuscaloosaemeraldmountainexpresswayinmontgomeryfoleybeachexpressinfoleymontgomeryexpresswayinmontgomeryandfourtollbridgesalabamariverparkwaybridgeinmontgomeryblackwarriorparkwaybridgeintuscaloosaemeraldmountainexpresswaybridgeinmontgomeryandfoleybeachexpressbridgeinfoley
inmarch2011alabamarankedamongthetopfiveworststatesontheamericanstatelitterscorecardforoverallpooreffectivenessandqualityofitsstatewidepublicspacecleanlinessprimarilyroadwayandadjacentlitterremovalsfromstateandrelatedefforts
alabamahasoneseaportinmobileonthegulfofmexicothestatesotherportsareonriverswithaccesstothegulf
waterportsofalabamalistedfromnorthtosouth
ingreekmythologyachillesancientgreekakhilleuswasagreekheroofthetrojanwarthecentralcharacterandthegreatestwarriorofhomersiliad
achilleswasnamedthemosthandsomeoftheheroesassembledagainsttroybyplato
laterlegendsbeginningwithapoembystatiusinthe1stcenturyadstatethatachilleswasinvulnerableinallofhisbodyexceptforhisheelashediedbecauseofasmallwoundonhisheelthetermachillesheelhascometomeanapersonsprincipalweakness
achillesnamecanbeanalyzedasacombinationofakhosgriefandlaosapeopletribenationetcinotherwordsachillesisanembodimentofthegriefofthepeoplegriefbeingathemeraisednumeroustimesintheiliadfrequentlybyachillesachillesroleastheheroofgriefformsanironicjuxtapositionwiththeconventionalviewofachillesastheheroofkleosgloryusuallygloryinwar
laoshasbeenconstruedbygregorynagyfollowingleonardpalmertomeanacorpsofsoldiersamusterwiththisderivationthenamewouldhaveadoublemeaninginthepoemwhentheheroisfunctioningrightlyhismenbringgrieftotheenemybutwhenwronglyhismengetthegriefofwarthepoemisinpartaboutthemisdirectionofangeronthepartofleadership
thenameachilleuswasacommonandattestednameamongthegreekssoonafterthe7thcenturybcitwasalsoturnedintothefemaleformἀχιλλείαachilleíaattestedinatticainthe4thcenturybcigii1617andintheformachilliaonasteleinhalicarnassusasthenameofafemalegladiatorfightinganamazonromangladiatorialgamesoftenreferencedclassicalmythologyandthisseemstoreferenceachillesfightwithpenthesileabutgivesitanextratwistofachillesbeingplayedbyawoman
achilleswasthesonofthenymphthetisandpeleusthekingofthemyrmidonszeusandposeidonhadbeenrivalsforthehandofthetisuntilprometheustheforethinkerwarnedzeusofaprophecythatthetiswouldbearasongreaterthanhisfatherforthisreasonthetwogodswithdrewtheirpursuitandhadherwedpeleus
aswithmostmythologythereisatalewhichoffersanalternativeversionoftheseeventsinargonauticaiv760heraalludestothetisschasteresistancetotheadvancesofzeusthatthetiswassoloyaltoherasmarriagebondthatshecoollyrejectedhimthetisalthoughadaughteroftheseagodnereuswasalsobroughtupbyherafurtherexplainingherresistancetotheadvancesofzeus
accordingtotheachilleidwrittenbystatiusinthe1stcenturyadandtonosurvivingprevioussourceswhenachilleswasbornthetistriedtomakehimimmortalbydippinghimintheriverstyxhoweverhewasleftvulnerableatthepartofthebodybywhichsheheldhimhisheelseeachillesheelachillestendonitisnotclearifthisversionofeventswasknownearlierinanotherversionofthisstorythetisanointedtheboyinambrosiaandputhimontopofafiretoburnawaythemortalpartsofhisbodyshewasinterruptedbypeleusandabandonedbothfatherandsoninarage
howevernoneofthesourcesbeforestatiusmakesanyreferencetothisgeneralinvulnerabilitytothecontraryintheiliadhomermentionsachillesbeingwoundedinbook21thepaeonianheroasteropaeussonofpelagonchallengedachillesbytheriverscamanderhecasttwospearsatonceonegrazedachilleselbowdrawingaspurtofblood
alsointhefragmentarypoemsoftheepiccycleinwhichwecanfinddescriptionoftheherosdeathkúpriaunknownauthoraithiopisbyarctinusofmiletusiliasmikrábylescheofmytileneilioupérsisbyarctinusofmiletusthereisnotraceofanyreferencetohisgeneralinvulnerabilityorhisfamousweaknessheelinthelatervasepaintingspresentingachillesdeaththearroworinmanycasesarrowshithisbody
peleusentrustedachillestochironthecentauronmtpeliontobereared
achillesconsumingrageisatsometimeswaveringbutatothertimeshecannotbecooledthehumanizationofachillesbytheeventsofthewarisanimportantthemeofthenarrative
accordingtotheiliadbook16achillesarrivedattroywith50shipseachcarrying50myrmidonsachillesappointedfiveleaderseachleadercommanding500myrmidonswhoweremenesthiuseudoruspeisanderphoenixandalcimedon
whenthegreeksleftforthetrojanwartheyaccidentallystoppedinmysiaruledbykingtelephusintheresultingbattleachillesgavetelephusawoundthatwouldnothealtelephusconsultedanoraclewhostatedthathethatwoundedshallhealguidedbytheoraclehearrivedatargoswhereachilleshealedhiminorderthathebecametheirguideforthevoyagetotroy
accordingtootherreportsineuripideslostplayabouttelephushewenttoaulispretendingtobeabeggarandaskedachillestohealhiswoundachillesrefusedclaimingtohavenomedicalknowledgealternativelytelephusheldorestesforransomtheransombeingachillesaidinhealingthewoundodysseusreasonedthatthespearhadinflictedthewoundthereforethespearmustbeabletohealitpiecesofthespearwerescrapedoffontothewoundandtelephuswashealed
accordingtothecypriathepartoftheepiccyclethattellstheeventsofthetrojanwarbeforeachilleswrathwhentheachaeansdesiredtoreturnhometheywererestrainedbyachilleswhoafterwardsattackedthecattleofaeneassackedneighboringcitiesandkilledtroilus
accordingtodaresphrygiusaccountofthedestructionoftroythelatinsummarythroughwhichthestoryofachilleswastransmittedtomedievaleuropetroiluswasayoungtrojanprincetheyoungestofkingpriamsorsometimesapolloandhecubasfivelegitimatesonsdespitehisyouthhewasoneofthemaintrojanwarleadersprophecieslinkedtroilusfatetothatoftroyandsohewasambushedinanattempttocapturehimyetachillesstruckbythebeautyofbothtroilusandhissisterpolyxenaandovercomewithlustdirectedhissexualattentionsontheyouthwhorefusingtoyieldfoundinsteadhimselfdecapitateduponanaltaromphalosofapollolaterversionsofthestorysuggestedtroiluswasaccidentallykilledbyachillesinanoverardentloversembraceinthisversionofthemythachillesdeaththereforecameinretributionforthissacrilegeancientwriterstreatedtroilusastheepitomeofadeadchildmournedbyhisparentshadtroiluslivedtoadulthoodthefirstvaticanmythographerclaimedtroywouldhavebeeninvincible
homersiliadisthemostfamousnarrativeofachillesdeedsinthetrojanwarthehomericepiconlycoversafewweeksofthewaranddoesnotnarrateachillesdeathitbeginswithachilleswithdrawalfrombattleafterheisdishonoredbyagamemnonthecommanderoftheachaeanforcesagamemnonhadtakenawomannamedchryseisashisslaveherfatherchrysesapriestofapollobeggedagamemnontoreturnhertohimagamemnonrefusedandapollosentaplagueamongstthegreekstheprophetcalchascorrectlydeterminedthesourceofthetroublesbutwouldnotspeakunlessachillesvowedtoprotecthimachillesdidsoandcalchasdeclaredchryseismustbereturnedtoherfatheragamemnonconsentedbutthencommandedthatachillesbattleprizebriseisbebroughttoreplacechryseisangryatthedishonorandashesayslaterbecausehelovedbriseisandattheurgingofthetisachillesrefusedtofightorleadhistroopsalongsidetheothergreekforcesatthissametimeburningwithrageoveragamemnonstheftachillesprayedtohismotherthetistoconvincezeustohelpthetrojansgaingroundinthewarsothathemayregainhishonor
asthebattleturnedagainstthegreeksthankstotheinfluenceofzeusnestordeclaredthatthetrojanswerewinningbecauseagamemnonhadangeredachillesandurgedthekingtoappeasethewarrioragamemnonagreedandsentodysseusandtwootherchieftainsajaxandphoenixtoachilleswiththeofferofthereturnofbriseisandothergiftsachillesrejectedallagamemnonofferedhimandsimplyurgedthegreekstosailhomeashewasplanningtodo
thetrojansledbyhectorsubsequentlypushedthegreekarmybacktowardthebeachesandassaultedthegreekshipswiththegreekforcesonthevergeofabsolutedestructionpatroclusledthemyrmidonsintobattlewearingachillesarmorthoughachillesremainedathiscamppatroclussucceededinpushingthetrojansbackfromthebeachesbutwaskilledbyhectorbeforehecouldleadaproperassaultonthecityoftroy
afterreceivingthenewsofthedeathofpatroclusfromantilochusthesonofnestorachillesgrievedoverhisbelovedcompanionsdeathandheldmanyfuneralgamesinhishonorhismotherthetiscametocomfortthedistraughtachillesshepersuadedhephaestustomakeanewarmorforhiminplaceofthearmorthatpatroclushadbeenwearingwhichwastakenbyhectorthenewarmorincludedtheshieldofachillesdescribedingreatdetailbythepoet
enragedoverthedeathofpatroclusachillesendedhisrefusaltofightandtookthefieldkillingmanymeninhisragebutalwaysseekingouthectorachillesevenengagedinbattlewiththerivergodscamanderwhobecameangrythatachilleswaschokinghiswaterswithallthemenhekilledthegodtriedtodrownachillesbutwasstoppedbyheraandhephaestuszeushimselftooknoteofachillesrageandsentthegodstorestrainhimsothathewouldnotgoontosacktroyitselfseemingtoshowthattheunhinderedrageofachillescoulddefyfateitselfastroywasnotmeanttobedestroyedyetfinallyachillesfoundhispreyachilleschasedhectoraroundthewalloftroythreetimesbeforeathenaintheformofhectorsfavoriteanddearestbrotherdeiphobuspersuadedhectortostoprunningandfightachillesfacetofaceafterhectorrealizedthetrickheknewthebattlewasinevitablewantingtogodownfightinghechargedatachilleswithhisonlyweaponhisswordbutmissedacceptinghisfatehectorbeggedachillesnottosparehislifebuttotreathisbodywithrespectafterkillinghimachillestoldhectoritwashopelesstoexpectthatofhimdeclaringthatmyragemyfurywoulddrivemenowtohackyourfleshawayandeatyourawsuchagoniesyouhavecausedmeachillesthengothisvengeance
withtheassistanceofthegodhermeshectorsfatherpriamwenttoachillestenttopleadwithachillestopermithimtoperformforhectorhisfuneralritesthefinalpassageintheiliadishectorsfuneralafterwhichthedoomoftroywasjustamatteroftime
achillesafterhistemporarytrucewithpriamfoughtandkilledtheamazonianwarriorqueenpenthesileabutlatergrievedoverherdeathatfirsthewassodistractedbyherbeautyhedidnotfightasintenselyasusualonceherealizedthathisdistractionwasendangeringhislifeherefocusedandkilledherashegrievedoverthedeathofsuchararebeautyanotoriousgreekjeererbythenameofthersiteslaughedandmockedthegreatachillesannoyedbyhisinsensitivityanddisrespectachillespunchedhiminthefaceandkilledhiminstantly
followingthedeathofpatroclusachillesclosestcompanionwasnestorssonantilochuswhenmemnonkingofethiopiaslewantilochusachillesoncemoreobtainedrevengeonthebattlefieldkillingmemnonthefightbetweenachillesandmemnonoverantilochusechoesthatofachillesandhectoroverpatroclusexceptthatmemnonunlikehectorwasalsothesonofagoddess
manyhomericscholarsarguedthatepisodeinspiredmanydetailsintheiliadsdescriptionofthedeathofpatroclusandachillesreactiontoittheepisodethenformedthebasisofthecyclicepicaethiopiswhichwascomposedaftertheiliadpossiblyinthe7thcenturybctheaethiopisisnowlostexceptforscatteredfragmentsquotedbylaterauthors
thedeathofachillesaspredictedbyhectorwithhisdyingbreathwasbroughtaboutbypariswithanarrowtotheheelaccordingtostatiusinsomeversionsthegodapolloguidedparisarrowsomeretellingsalsostatethatachilleswasscalingthegatesoftroyandwashitwithapoisonedarrow
alloftheseversionsdenyparisanysortofvalorowingtothecommonconceptionthatpariswasacowardandnotthemanhisbrotherhectorwasandachillesremainedundefeatedonthebattlefieldhisbonesweremingledwiththoseofpatroclusandfuneralgameswereheldhewasrepresentedinthelosttrojanwarepicofarctinusofmiletusaslivingafterhisdeathintheislandofleukeatthemouthoftheriverdanubeseebelow
anotherversionofachillesdeathisthathefelldeeplyinlovewithoneofthetrojanprincessespolyxenaachillesaskspriamforpolyxenashandinmarriagepriamiswillingbecauseitwouldmeantheendofthewarandanalliancewiththeworldsgreatestwarriorbutwhilepriamisoverseeingtheprivatemarriageofpolyxenaandachillespariswhowouldhavetogiveuphelenifachillesmarriedhissisterhidesinthebushesandshootsachilleswithadivinearrowkillinghim
achilleswascrematedandhisashesburiedinthesameurnasthoseofpatroclus
pariswaslaterkilledbyphiloctetesusingtheenormousbowofheracles
achillesarmorwastheobjectofafeudbetweenodysseusandtelamonianajaxajaxthegreatertheycompetedforitbygivingspeechesonwhytheywerethebravestafterachillestotheirtrojanprisonerswhoafterconsideringbothmencametoaconsensusinfavorofodysseusfuriousajaxcursedodysseuswhichearnedtheireofathenaathenatemporarilymadeajaxsomadwithgriefandanguishthathebegankillingsheepthinkingthemhiscomradesafterawhilewhenathenaliftedhismadnessandajaxrealizedthathehadactuallybeenkillingsheepajaxwasleftsoashamedthathecommittedsuicideodysseuseventuallygavethearmortoneoptolemusthesonofachilles
arelicclaimedtobeachillesbronzeheadedspearwasforcenturiespreservedinthetempleofathenaontheacropolisofphaselislyciaaportonthepamphyliangulfthecitywasvisitedin333bcbyalexanderthegreatwhoenvisionedhimselfasthenewachillesandcarriedtheiliadwithhimbuthiscourtbiographersdonotmentionthespearwhichhewouldindeedhavetouchedwithexcitementbutitwasbeingshowninthetimeofpausaniasinthe2ndcenturyad
achillesrelationshipwithpatroclusisakeyaspectofhismythitsexactnaturehasbeenasubjectofdisputeinboththeclassicalperiodandmoderntimesintheiliaditappearstobegenerallyportrayedasamodelofdeepandloyalfriendshipbutcommentatorsfromtheclassicalperiodtotodayhavetendedtointerprettherelationshipthroughthelensoftheirownculturesthusin5thcenturybcathenstherelationshipwascommonlyinterpretedaspederasticcontemporaryreadersmayinterpretthetwoheroeseitherasrelativesorclosefriendsaswarbuddiesasbeinginateacherstudentrelationshiporinlovewitheachotherasanegalitarianhomosexualcouplewhicheverthecasemaybeachillesneverthelesscontinuedtohavesexualrelationshipswithwomen
therewasanarchaicheroiccultofachillesonthewhiteislandleuceintheblackseaoffthemoderncoastsofromaniaandukrainewithatempleandanoraclewhichsurvivedintotheromanperiod
inthelostepicaithiopisacontinuationoftheiliadattributedtoarktinusofmiletosachillesmotherthetisreturnedtomournhimandremovedhisashesfromthepyreandtookthemtoleuceatthemouthsofthedanubetheretheachaeansraisedatumulusforhimandcelebratedfuneralgames
plinysnaturalhistoryiv271mentionsatumulusthatisnolongerevidentinsulaakchillistumuloeiusviriclaraontheislandconsecratedtohimlocatedatadistanceoffiftyromanmilesfrompeucebythedanubedeltaandthetempletherepausaniashasbeentoldthattheislandiscoveredwithforestsandfullofanimalssomewildsometameinthisislandthereisalsoachillestempleandhisstatueiii1911ruinsofasquaretemple30meterstoasidepossiblythatdedicatedtoachilleswerediscoveredbycaptainkritziklyin1823buttherehasbeennomodernarcheologicalworkdoneontheisland
pomponiusmelatellsthatachillesisburiedintheislandnamedachilleabetweenboristheneandisterdesituorbisii7thegreekgeographerdionysiusperiegetusofbithyniawholivedatthetimeofdomitianwritesthattheislandwascalledleucebecausethewildanimalswhichlivetherearewhiteitissaidthatthereinleuceislandresidethesoulsofachillesandotherheroesandthattheywanderthroughtheuninhabitedvalleysofthisislandthisishowjoverewardedthemenwhohaddistinguishedthemselvesthroughtheirvirtuesbecausethroughvirtuetheyhadacquiredeverlastinghonororbisdescriptiov541quotedindensuşianu1913
theperiplusoftheeuxineseagivesthefollowingdetailsitissaidthatthegoddessthetisraisedthisislandfromtheseaforhersonachilleswhodwellstherehereishistempleandhisstatueanarchaicworkthisislandisnotinhabitedandgoatsgrazeonitnotmanywhichthepeoplewhohappentoarriveherewiththeirshipssacrificetoachillesinthistemplearealsodepositedagreatmanyholygiftscratersringsandpreciousstonesofferedtoachillesingratitudeonecanstillreadinscriptionsingreekandlatininwhichachillesispraisedandcelebratedsomeofthesearewordedinpatroclushonorbecausethosewhowishtobefavoredbyachilleshonorpatroclusatthesametimetherearealsointhisislandcountlessnumbersofseabirdswhichlookafterachillestempleeverymorningtheyflyouttoseawettheirwingswithwaterandreturnquicklytothetempleandsprinkleitandaftertheyfinishthesprinklingtheycleanthehearthofthetemplewiththeirwingsotherpeoplesaystillmorethatsomeofthemenwhoreachthisislandcomehereintentionallytheybringanimalsintheirshipsdestinedtobesacrificedsomeoftheseanimalstheyslaughterotherstheysetfreeontheislandinachilleshonorbutthereareotherswhoareforcedtocometothisislandbyseastormsastheyhavenosacrificialanimalsbutwishtogetthemfromthegodoftheislandhimselftheyconsultachillesoracletheyaskpermissiontoslaughterthevictimschosenfromamongtheanimalsthatgrazefreelyontheislandandtodepositinexchangethepricewhichtheyconsiderfairbutincasetheoracledeniesthempermissionbecausethereisanoracleheretheyaddsomethingtothepriceofferedandiftheoraclerefusesagaintheyaddsomethingmoreuntilatlasttheoracleagreesthatthepriceissufficientandthenthevictimdoesntrunawayanymorebutwaitswillinglytobecaughtsothereisagreatquantityofsilverthereconsecratedtotheheroaspriceforthesacrificialvictimstosomeofthepeoplewhocometothisislandachillesappearsindreamstoothershewouldappearevenduringtheirnavigationiftheywerenottoofarawayandwouldinstructthemastowhichpartoftheislandtheywouldbetteranchortheirshipsquotedindensuşianu
theheroiccultofachillesonleuceislandwaswidespreadinantiquitynotonlyalongthesealanesoftheponticseabutalsoinmaritimecitieswhoseeconomicinterestsweretightlyconnectedtotherichesoftheblacksea
achillesfromleuceislandwasveneratedaspontarchesthelordandmasteroftheponticseatheprotectorofsailorsandnavigationsailorswentoutoftheirwaytooffersacrificetoachillesofleucewerededicatedanumberofimportantcommercialportcitiesofthegreekwatersachilleioninmesseniastephanusbyzantinusachilleiosinlaconiapausaniasiii254nicolaedensuşianudensuşianu1913eventhoughherecognizedachillesinthenameofaquileiaandinthenortharmofthedanubedeltathearmofchiliaachileiithoughhisconclusionthatleucehadsovereignrightsoverpontosevokesmodernratherthanarchaicsealaw
leucehadalsoareputationasaplaceofhealingpausaniasiii1913reportsthatthedelphicpythiasentalordofcrotontobecuredofachestwoundammianusmarcellinusxxii8attributesthehealingtowatersaquaeontheisland
intheregionofgastouriγαστούριtothesouthofthecityofcorfugreeceempressofaustriaelisabethofbavariaalsoknownassissibuiltin1890asummerpalacewithachillesasitscentralthemeanditisamonumenttoplatonicromanticismthepalacenaturallywasnamedafterachillesachilleionαχίλλειονthiselegantstructureaboundswithpaintingsandstatuesofachillesbothinthemainhallandinthelavishgardensdepictingtheheroicandtragicscenesofthetrojanwar
inbook11ofhomersodysseyodysseussailstotheunderworldandconverseswiththeshadesoneoftheseisachilleswhowhengreetedasblessedinlifeblessedindeathrespondsthathewouldratherbeaslavetotheworstofmastersthanbekingofallthedeadbutachillesthenasksodysseusofhissonsexploitsinthetrojanwarandwhenodysseustellsofneoptolemusheroicactionsachillesisfilledwithsatisfactionthisleavesthereaderwithanambiguousunderstandingofhowachillesfeltabouttheheroiclifeachilleswasworshippedasaseagodinmanyofthegreekcoloniesontheblackseathelocationofthemythicalwhiteislandwhichhewassaidtoinhabitafterhisdeathtogetherwithmanyotherheroes
thekingsoftheepirusclaimedtobedescendedfromachillesthroughhissonneoptolemusalexanderthegreatsonoftheepiroteprincessolympiascouldthereforealsoclaimthisdescentandinmanywaysstrovetobelikehisgreatancestorheissaidtohavevisitedthetombofachillesatachilleionwhilepassingtroyinad216theromanemperorcaracallawhileonhiswaytowaragainstparthiaemulatedalexanderbyholdinggamesaroundachillestumulus
achillesfoughtandkilledtheamazonhelenesomealsosaidhemarriedmedeaandthatafterboththeirdeathstheywereunitedintheelysianfieldsofhadesasherapromisedthetisinapolloniusargonauticainsomeversionsofthemythachilleshasarelationshipwithhiscaptivebriseis
thegreektragedianaeschyluswroteatrilogyofplaysaboutachillesgiventhetitleachilleisbymodernscholarsthetragediesrelatethedeedsofachillesduringthetrojanwarincludinghisdefeatofhectorandeventualdeathwhenanarrowshotbyparisandguidedbyapollopunctureshisheelextantfragmentsoftheachilleisandotheraeschyleanfragmentshavebeenassembledtoproduceaworkablemodernplaythefirstpartoftheachilleistrilogythemyrmidonsfocusedontherelationshipbetweenachillesandchoruswhorepresenttheachaeanarmyandtrytoconvinceachillestogiveuphisquarrelwithagamemnononlyafewlinessurvivetoday
thetragediansophoclesalsowrotetheloversofachillesaplaywithachillesasthemaincharacteronlyafewfragmentssurvive
thephilosopherzenoofeleacenteredoneofhisparadoxesonanimaginaryfootracebetweenswiftfootedachillesandatortoisebywhichheattemptedtoshowthatachillescouldnotcatchuptoatortoisewithaheadstartandthereforethatmotionandchangewereimpossibleasastudentofthemonistparmenidesandamemberoftheeleaticschoolzenobelievedtimeandmotiontobeillusions
theroleofachilleshasbeenplayedby
achilleshasfrequentlybeenmentionedinmusic
abrahamlincolnfebruary121809april151865wasthe16thpresidentoftheunitedstatesservingfrommarch1861untilhisassassinationin1865heledthecountrythroughagreatconstitutionalmilitaryandmoralcrisistheamericancivilwarpreservingtheunionwhileendingslaveryandpromotingeconomicandfinancialmodernizationrearedinapoorfamilyonthewesternfrontierlincolnwasmostlyselfeducatedhebecameacountrylawyeranillinoisstatelegislatorandaonetermmemberoftheunitedstateshouseofrepresentativesbutfailedintwoattemptsataseatintheunitedstatessenatehewasanaffectionatethoughoftenabsenthusbandandfatheroffourchildren
afterdeftlyopposingtheexpansionofslaveryintheunitedstatesinhiscampaigndebatesandspeecheslincolnsecuredtherepublicannominationandwaselectedpresidentin1860followingdeclarationsofsecessionbysouthernslavestateswarbeganinapril1861andheconcentratedonboththemilitaryandpoliticaldimensionsofthewareffortseekingtoreunifythenationhevigorouslyexercisedunprecedentedwarpowersincludingthearrestanddetentionwithouttrialofthousandsofsuspectedsecessionistshepreventedbritishrecognitionoftheconfederacybyskillfullyhandlingthetrentaffairlatein1861heissuedhisemancipationproclamationin1863andpromotedthepassageofthethirteenthamendmenttotheunitedstatesconstitutionabolishingslavery
lincolncloselysupervisedthewareffortespeciallytheselectionoftopgeneralsincludingcommandinggeneralulyssessgranthebroughtleadersofvariousfactionsofhispartyintohiscabinetandpressuredthemtocooperateunderhisleadershiptheuniontookcontroloftheborderslavestatesatthestartofthewarandtriedrepeatedlytocapturetheconfederatecapitalatrichmondeachtimeageneralfailedlincolnsubstitutedanotheruntilfinallygrantsucceededin1865anexceptionallyastutepoliticiandeeplyinvolvedwithpowerissuesineachstatehereachedouttowardemocratsandmanagedhisownreelectioninthe1864presidentialelection
astheleaderofthemoderatefactionoftherepublicanpartylincolncameunderattackfromallsidesradicalrepublicanswantedharshertreatmentofthesouthwardemocratsdesiredmorecompromiseandcopperheadsdespisedhimnottomentionirreconcilablesecessionistsinreconqueredareaspoliticallylincolnfoughtbackwithpatronagebypittinghisopponentsagainsteachotherandbyappealingtotheamericanpeoplewithhispowersoforatoryhisgettysburgaddressof1863becamethemostquotedspeechinamericanhistoryitwasaniconicstatementofamericasdedicationtotheprinciplesofnationalismequalrightslibertyanddemocracyatthecloseofthewarlincolnheldamoderateviewofreconstructionseekingtospeedilyreunitethenationthroughapolicyofgenerousreconciliationinthefaceoflingeringandbitterdivisivenesshoweverjustsixdaysafterthesurrenderofconfederatecommandinggeneralroberteleelincolnwasshotandkilledbyconfederatesympathizerjohnwilkesboothatfordstheatreinwashingtondchisdeathmarkedthefirstassassinationofauspresidentlincolnhasbeenconsistentlyrankedbyscholarsasoneofthegreatestuspresidents
inkentuckynancyhanksmarriedthomaslincolnwhobecamearespectedcitizenofhisruralareaheboughtandsoldseveralfarmsincludingthesinkingspringfarmthefamilyattendedaseparatebaptistschurchwhichhadhighmoralstandardsandopposedalcoholdancingandslaveryasanadultthomasneverformallyjoinedachurchthomasenjoyedconsiderablestatusinkentuckywherehesatonjuriesappraisedestatesservedoncountryslavepatrolsandguardedprisonersbythetimehissonabrahamwasbornthomasownedtwofarmsseveraltownlotslivestockandhorseshewasamongtherichestmeninthecountyin1816thelincolnfamilylosteverythingtheywerestrippedofalltheirlandsincourtcasesbecauseofafaultytitleinindianawhenlincolnwasninehis34yearoldmothernancydiedofmilksicknessin1818locatedonthegroundsoflincolnboyhoodnationalmemorialinlincolncityindiana
afterthedeathoflincolnsmotherhisoldersistersarahtookchargeofcaringforhimuntiltheirfatherremarriedin1819thomaslincolnsnewwifewasthewidowsarahbushjohnstonthemotherofthreeofherownchildrenlincolnbecameveryclosetohisstepmotherandreferredtoherasmotherashegrewolderlincolnbecameincreasinglydistantfromhisfatherheregrettedhisfatherslackofeducationanddidnotlikethehardlaborassociatedwithfrontierlifestillhewillinglytookresponsibilityforallchoresexpectedofhimasoneoftheboysinthehouseholdandbecameanadeptaxemaninhisworkbuildingrailfenceslincolnalsoagreedwiththecustomaryobligationofasontogivehisfatherallearningsfromworkdoneoutsidethehomeuntilage21inlateryearslincolnoccasionallyloanedhisfathermoneylincolnssistersarahdiedinher20swhilegivingbirthtoastillbornson
canoeingdownthesangamonriverlincolnendedupinthevillageofnewsaleminsangamoncountyinthespringof1831hiredbynewsalembusinessmandentonoffuttandaccompaniedbyfriendshetookgoodsbyflatboatfromnewsalemtoneworleansviathesangamonillinoisandmississippiriversafterarrivinginneworleansandwitnessingslaveryfirsthandhewalkedbackhome
lincolnsformalelementaryeducationconsistedapproximatelyofayearsworthofclassesfromseveralitinerantteachershewasmostlyselfeducatedandwasanavidreaderheattainedareputationforbrawnandaudacityafteraverycompetitivewrestlingmatchtowhichhewaschallengedbytherenownedleaderofagroupofruffianstheclarysgroveboyssomeinhisfamilyandintheneighborhoodconsideredhimtobelazylincolnavoidedhuntingandfishingoutofanaversiontokillinganimals
lincolnsfirstromanticinterestwasannrutledgewhomhemetwhenhefirstmovedtonewsalemby1835theywereinarelationshipbutnotformallyengagedshediedhoweveronaugust25mostlikelyoftyphoidfeverintheearly1830shemetmaryowensfromkentuckywhenshewasvisitinghersisterlatein1836lincolnagreedtoamatchwithmaryifshereturnedtonewsalemmarydidreturninnovember1836andlincolncourtedherforatimehowevertheybothhadsecondthoughtsabouttheirrelationshiponaugust161837lincolnwrotemaryalettersuggestinghewouldnotblameherifsheendedtherelationshipsheneverrepliedandthecourtshipwasover
in1840lincolnbecameengagedtomarytoddwhowasfromawealthyslaveholdingfamilyinlexingtonkentuckytheymetinspringfieldillinoisindecember1839andwereengagedthefollowingdecemberaweddingsetforjanuary11841wascanceledwhenthetwobrokeofftheirengagementatlincolnsinitiativetheylatermetatapartyandweremarriedonnovember41842inthespringfieldmansionofmarysmarriedsisterwhilepreparingforthenuptialsandfeelingreluctanceagainlincolnwhenaskedwherehewasgoingrepliedtohellisuppose
in1844thecoupleboughtahouseinspringfieldnearlincolnslawofficemarytoddlincolnworkeddiligentlyintheirhomeassuminghouseholddutieswhichhadbeenperformedforherinherownfamilyshealsomadeefficientuseofthelimitedfundsavailablefromherhusbandslawpracticethelincolnsinspringfieldusuallyhireddomesticservantsofirishandafricanamericandescentthelincolnsneverownedslavesroberttoddlincolnwasbornin1843andedwardbakerlincolneddiein1846lincolnwasremarkablyfondofchildrenandthelincolnswerenotconsideredtobestrictwiththeirchildrenrobertwastheonlychildtolivetoadulthoodedwarddiedonfebruary11850inspringfieldlikelyoftuberculosiswillielincolnwasbornondecember211850anddiedonfebruary201862thelincolnsfourthsonthomastadlincolnwasbornonapril41853anddiedofheartfailureattheageof18onjuly161871
thedeathoftheirsonshadprofoundeffectsonbothparentslaterinlifemarystruggledwiththestressesoflosingherhusbandandsonsandrobertlincolncommittedhertemporarilytoamentalhealthasylumin1875abrahamlincolnsufferedfrommelancholyaconditionwhichnowmaybereferredtoasclinicaldepression
lincolnsfatherinlawwasbasedinlexingtonkentuckyheandothersofthetoddfamilywereeitherslaveownersorslavetraderslincolnwasclosetothetoddsandheandhisfamilyoccasionallyvisitedthetoddestateinlexington
lincolnservedasnewsalemspostmasterandlaterascountysurveyorallthewhilereadingvoraciouslyhethendecidedtobecomealawyerandbeganteachinghimselflawbyreadingblackstonescommentariesonthelawsofenglandandotherlawbooksofhislearningmethodlincolnstatedistudiedwithnobodyhissecondcampaignin1834wassuccessfulhewonelectiontothestatelegislaturethoughheranasawhigmanydemocratsfavoredhimoveramorepowerfulwhigopponentadmittedtothebarin1836hemovedtospringfieldillinoisandbegantopracticelawunderjohntstuartmarytoddscousinlincolnbecameanableandsuccessfullawyerwithareputationasaformidableadversaryduringcrossexaminationsandclosingargumentshepartneredwithstephentloganfrom1841until1844whenhebeganhispracticewithwilliamherndonwhomlincolnthoughtastudiousyoungmanheservedfoursuccessivetermsintheillinoishouseofrepresentativesasawhigrepresentativefromsangamoncounty
inthe18351836legislativesessionhevotedtoexpandsuffragetowhitemaleswhetherlandownersornothewasknownforhisfreesoilstanceofopposingbothslaveryandabolitionismhefirstarticulatedthisin1837sayinginstitutionofslaveryisfoundedonbothinjusticeandbadpolicybutthepromulgationofabolitiondoctrinestendsrathertoincreasethanabateitsevilshecloselyfollowedhenryclayinsupportingtheamericancolonizationsocietyprogramofmakingtheabolitionofslaverypracticalbyhelpingthefreedslavestosettleinliberiainafrica
fromtheearly1830slincolnwasasteadfastwhigandprofessedtofriendsin1861tobeanoldlinewhigadiscipleofhenryclaythepartyincludinglincolnfavoredeconomicmodernizationinbankingrailroadsandinternalimprovementsandespousedurbanizationaswellasprotectivetariffs
in1846lincolnwaselectedtotheushouseofrepresentativeswhereheservedonetwoyeartermhewastheonlywhigintheillinoisdelegationbutheshowedhispartyloyaltybyparticipatinginalmostallvotesandmakingspeechesthatechoedthepartylinelincolnincollaborationwithabolitionistcongressmanjoshuargiddingswroteabilltoabolishslaveryinthedistrictofcolumbiawithcompensationfortheownersenforcementtocapturefugitiveslavesandapopularvoteonthematterheabandonedthebillwhenitfailedtogarnersufficientwhigsupporterslincolnalsospokeoutagainstthemexicanamericanwarwhichheattributedtopresidentpolksdesireformilitaryglorythatattractiverainbowthatrisesinshowersofblood
lincolnemphasizedhisoppositiontopolkbydraftingandintroducinghisspotresolutionsthewarhadbegunwithamexicanslaughterofamericansoldiersinterritorydisputedbymexicoandtheuspolkinsistedthatmexicansoldiershadinvadedourterritoryandshedthebloodofourfellowcitizensonourownsoillincolndemandedthatpolkshowcongresstheexactspotonwhichbloodhadbeenshedandprovethatthespotwasonamericansoillincolnlaterregrettedsomeofhisstatementsespeciallyhisattackonthepresidentialwarmakingpowers
realizingclaywasunlikelytowinthepresidencylincolnwhohadpledgedin1846toserveonlyoneterminthehousesupportedgeneralzacharytaylorforthewhignominationinthe1848presidentialelectiontaylorwonandlincolnhopedtobeappointedcommissionerofthegenerallandofficebutthatlucrativepatronagejobwenttoanillinoisrivaljustinbutterfieldconsideredbytheadministrationtobeahighlyskilledlawyerbutinlincolnsviewanoldfossiltheadministrationofferedhimtheconsolationprizeofsecretaryorgovernoroftheoregonterritorythisdistantterritorywasademocraticstrongholdandacceptanceofthepostwouldhaveeffectivelyendedhislegalandpoliticalcareerinillinoissohedeclinedandresumedhislawpractice
in1851herepresentedaltonampsangamonrailroadinadisputewithoneofitsshareholdersjamesabarretwhohadrefusedtopaythebalanceonhispledgetobuysharesintherailroadonthegroundsthatthecompanyhadchangeditsoriginaltrainroutelincolnsuccessfullyarguedthattherailroadcompanywasnotboundbyitsoriginalcharterinexistenceatthetimeofbarretspledgethecharterwasamendedinthepublicinteresttoprovideanewersuperiorandlessexpensiverouteandthecorporationretainedtherighttodemandbarretspaymentthedecisionbytheillinoissupremecourthasbeencitedbynumerousothercourtsinthenationfrom1853to1860anotheroflincolnslargestclientswastheillinoiscentralrailroad
lincolnsmostnotablecriminaltrialoccurredin1858whenhedefendedwilliamduffarmstrongwhowasontrialforthemurderofjamesprestonmetzkerthecaseisfamousforlincolnsuseofafactestablishedbyjudicialnoticeinordertochallengethecredibilityofaneyewitnessafteranopposingwitnesstestifiedseeingthecrimeinthemoonlightlincolnproducedafarmersalmanacshowingthemoonwasatalowangledrasticallyreducingvisibilitybasedonthisevidencearmstrongwasacquitted
bythe1850sslaverywasstilllegalinthesouthernunitedstatesbuthadbeengenerallyoutlawedinthenorthernstatessuchasillinoislincolndisapprovedofslaveryandthespreadofslaverytonewusterritoryinthewesthereturnedtopoliticstoopposetheproslaverykansasnebraskaact1854thislawrepealedtheslaveryrestrictingmissouricompromise1820seniorsenatorstephenadouglasofillinoishadincorporatedpopularsovereigntyintotheactdouglasprovisionwhichlincolnopposedspecifiedsettlershadtherighttodeterminelocallywhethertoallowslaveryinnewusterritoryratherthanhavesuchadecisionrestrictedbythenationalcongressfoner2010contraststheabolitionistsandantislaveryradicalrepublicansofthenortheastwhosawslaveryasinwiththeconservativerepublicanswhothoughtitwasbadbecauseithurtwhitepeopleandblockedprogressfonerarguesthatlincolnwasamoderateinthemiddleopposingslaveryprimarilybecauseitviolatedtherepublicanismprinciplesofthefoundingfathersespeciallytheequalityofallmenanddemocraticselfgovernmentasexpressedinthedeclarationofindependence
onoctober161854inhispeoriaspeechlincolndeclaredhisoppositiontoslaverywhichherepeatedenroutetothepresidencyspeakinginhiskentuckyaccentwithaverypowerfulvoicehesaidthekansasacthadadeclaredindifferencebutasimustthinkacovertrealzealforthespreadofslaveryicannotbuthateitihateitbecauseofthemonstrousinjusticeofslaveryitselfihateitbecauseitdeprivesourrepublicanexampleofitsjustinfluenceintheworld
inlate1854lincolnranasawhigfortheussenateseatfromillinoisatthattimesenatorswereelectedbythestatelegislatureafterleadinginthefirstsixroundsofvotingintheillinoisassemblyhissupportbegantodwindleandlincolninstructedhisbackerstovoteforlymantrumbullwhodefeatedopponentjoelaldrichmattesonthewhigshadbeenirreparablysplitbythekansasnebraskaactlincolnwroteithinkiamawhigbutotherssaytherearenowhigsandthatiamanabolitionisteventhoughidonomorethanopposetheextensionofslaverydrawingonremnantsoftheoldwhigpartyandondisenchantedfreesoillibertyanddemocraticpartymembershewasinstrumentalinforgingtheshapeofthenewrepublicanpartyattherepublicanconventionin1856lincolnplacedsecondinthecontesttobecomethepartyscandidateforvicepresident
in185758douglasbrokewithpresidentbuchananleadingtoafightforcontrolofthedemocraticpartysomeeasternrepublicansevenfavoredthereelectionofdouglasforthesenatein1858sincehehadledtheoppositiontothelecomptonconstitutionwhichwouldhaveadmittedkansasasaslavestateinmarch1857thesupremecourtissueditsdecisionindredscottvsandfordchiefjusticerogerbtaneyopinedthatblackswerenotcitizensandderivednorightsfromtheconstitutionlincolndenouncedthedecisionallegingitwastheproductofaconspiracyofdemocratstosupporttheslavepowerlincolnarguedtheauthorsofthedeclarationofindependenceneverintendedtosayallwereequalincolorsizeintellectmoraldevelopmentsorsocialcapacitybuttheydidconsiderallmencreatedequalequalincertaininalienablerightsamongwhicharelifelibertyandthepursuitofhappiness
afterthestaterepublicanpartyconventionnominatedhimfortheussenatein1858lincolndeliveredhishousedividedspeechdrawingonmarksgospelfromthebibleahousedividedagainstitselfcannotstandibelievethisgovernmentcannotendurepermanentlyhalfslaveandhalffreeidonotexpecttheuniontobedissolvedidonotexpectthehousetofallbutidoexpectitwillceasetobedivideditwillbecomeallonethingoralltheotherthespeechcreatedanevocativeimageofthedangerofdisunioncausedbytheslaverydebateandralliedrepublicansacrossthenorththestagewasthensetforthecampaignforstatewideelectionoftheillinoislegislaturewhichwouldinturnselectlincolnordouglasasitsussenator
the1858senatecampaignfeaturedthesevenlincolndouglasdebatesof1858themostfamouspoliticaldebatesinamericanhistorytheprincipalsstoodinstarkcontrastbothphysicallyandpoliticallylincolnwarnedthattheslavepowerwasthreateningthevaluesofrepublicanismandaccuseddouglasofdistortingthevaluesofthefoundingfathersthatallmenarecreatedequalwhiledouglasemphasizedhisfreeportdoctrinethatlocalsettlerswerefreetochoosewhethertoallowslaveryornotandaccusedlincolnofhavingjoinedtheabolitioniststhedebateshadanatmosphereofaprizefightanddrewcrowdsinthethousandslincolnstateddouglasspopularsovereigntytheorywasathreattothenationsmoralityandthatdouglasrepresentedaconspiracytoextendslaverytofreestatesdouglassaidthatlincolnwasdefyingtheauthorityoftheussupremecourtandthedredscottdecision
thoughtherepublicanlegislativecandidateswonmorepopularvotesthedemocratswonmoreseatsandthelegislaturereelecteddouglastothesenatedespitethebitternessofthedefeatforlincolnhisarticulationoftheissuesgavehimanationalpoliticalreputationinmay1859lincolnpurchasedtheillinoisstaatsanzeigeragermanlanguagenewspaperwhichwasconsistentlysupportivemostofthestates130000germanamericansvoteddemocraticbuttherewasrepublicansupportthatagermanlanguagepapercouldmobilize
onfebruary271860newyorkpartyleadersinvitedlincolntogiveaspeechatcooperuniontoagroupofpowerfulrepublicanslincolnarguedthatthefoundingfathershadlittleuseforpopularsovereigntyandhadrepeatedlysoughttorestrictslaverylincolninsistedthemoralfoundationoftherepublicansrequiredoppositiontoslaveryandrejectedanygropingforsomemiddlegroundbetweentherightandthewrongdespitehisinelegantappearancemanyintheaudiencethoughthimawkwardandevenuglylincolndemonstratedanintellectualleadershipthatbroughthimintothefrontranksofthepartyandintocontentionfortherepublicanpresidentialnominationjournalistnoahbrooksreportednomaneverbeforemadesuchanimpressiononhisfirstappealtoanewyorkaudiencedonalddescribedthespeechasasuperbpoliticalmoveforanunannouncedcandidatetoappearinonerivalswilliamhsewardownstateataneventsponsoredbythesecondrivalssalmonpchaseloyalistswhilenotmentioningeitherbynameduringitsdeliveryinresponsetoaninquiryabouthispresidentialintentionslincolnsaidthetasteisinmymouthalittle
onmay9101860theillinoisrepublicanstateconventionwasheldindecaturlincolnsfollowersorganizedacampaignteamledbydaviddavisnormanjuddleonardswettandjesseduboisandlincolnreceivedhisfirstendorsementtorunforthepresidencyexploitingtheembellishedlegendofhisfrontierdayswithhisfatherlincolnssupportersadoptedthelabeloftherailcandidateonmay18attherepublicannationalconventioninchicagolincolnsfriendspromisedandmanipulatedandwonthenominationonthethirdballotbeatingcandidatessuchaswilliamhsewardandsalmonpchaseaformerdemocrathannibalhamlinofmainewasnominatedforvicepresidenttobalancetheticketlincolnssuccessdependedonhisreputationasamoderateontheslaveryissueandhisstrongsupportforwhiggishprogramsofinternalimprovementsandtheprotectivetariffonthethirdballotpennsylvaniaputhimoverthetoppennsylvaniaironinterestswerereassuredbyhissupportforprotectivetariffslincolnsmanagershadbeenadroitlyfocusedonthisdelegationaswellastheotherswhilefollowinglincolnsstrongdictatetomakenocontractsthatbindme
mostrepublicansagreedwithlincolnthatthenorthwastheaggrievedpartyastheslavepowertighteneditsgrasponthenationalgovernmentwiththedredscottdecisionandthepresidencyofjamesbuchananthroughoutthe1850slincolndoubtedtheprospectsofcivilwarandhissupportersrejectedclaimsthathiselectionwouldincitesecessionmeanwhiledouglaswasselectedasthecandidateofthenortherndemocratswithherschelvespasianjohnsonasthevicepresidentialcandidatedelegatesfrom11slavestateswalkedoutofthedemocraticconventiondisagreeingwithdouglasspositiononpopularsovereigntyandultimatelyselectedjohncbreckinridgeastheircandidate
asdouglasandtheothercandidateswentthroughwiththeircampaignslincolnwastheonlyoneofthemwhogavenospeechesinsteadhemonitoredthecampaigncloselyandreliedontheenthusiasmoftherepublicanpartythepartydidthelegworkthatproducedmajoritiesacrossthenorthandproducedanabundanceofcampaignpostersleafletsandnewspapereditorialstherewerethousandsofrepublicanspeakerswhofocusedfirstonthepartyplatformandsecondonlincolnslifestoryemphasizinghischildhoodpovertythegoalwastodemonstratethesuperiorpoweroffreelaborwherebyacommonfarmboycouldworkhiswaytothetopbyhisowneffortstherepublicanpartysproductionofcampaignliteraturedwarfedthecombinedoppositionachicagotribunewriterproducedapamphletthatdetailedlincolnslifeandsoldonemillioncopies
onnovember61860lincolnwaselectedthesixteenthpresidentoftheunitedstatesbeatingdemocratstephenadouglasjohncbreckinridgeofthesoutherndemocratsandjohnbellofthenewconstitutionalunionpartyhewasthefirstpresidentfromtherepublicanpartywinningentirelyonthestrengthofhissupportinthenorthandwestnoballotswerecastforhimintenofthefifteensouthernslavestatesandhewononlytwoof996countiesinallthesouthernstateslincolnreceived1866452votesdouglas1376957votesbreckinridge849781votesandbell588789votesturnoutwas822percentwithlincolnwinningthefreenorthernstatesaswellascaliforniaandoregondouglaswonmissouriandsplitnewjerseywithlincolnbellwonvirginiatennesseeandkentuckyandbreckinridgewontherestofthesouththestateselectoralvotesweredecisivelincolnhad180andhisopponentsaddedtogetherhadonly123therewerefusionticketsinwhichalloflincolnsopponentscombinedtosupportthesameslateofelectorsinnewyorknewjerseyandrhodeislandbuteveniftheantilincolnvotehadbeencombinedineverystatelincolnstillwouldhavewonamajorityintheelectoralcollege
aslincolnselectionbecameevidentsecessionistsmadecleartheirintenttoleavetheunionbeforehetookofficethenextmarchondecember201860southcarolinatooktheleadbyadoptinganordinanceofsecessionbyfebruary11861floridamississippialabamageorgialouisianaandtexasfollowedsixofthesestatesthenadoptedaconstitutionanddeclaredthemselvestobeasovereignnationtheconfederatestatesofamericatheuppersouthandborderstatesdelawaremarylandvirginianorthcarolinatennesseekentuckymissouriandarkansaslistenedtobutinitiallyrejectedthesecessionistappealpresidentbuchananandpresidentelectlincolnrefusedtorecognizetheconfederacydeclaringsecessionillegaltheconfederacyselectedjeffersondavisastheirprovisionalpresidentonfebruary91861
therewereattemptsatcompromisethecrittendencompromisewouldhaveextendedthemissouricompromiselineof1820dividingtheterritoriesintoslaveandfreecontrarytotherepublicanpartysfreesoilplatformlincolnrejectedtheideasayingiwillsufferdeathbeforeiconsenttoanyconcessionorcompromisewhichlookslikebuyingtheprivilegetotakepossessionofthisgovernmenttowhichwehaveaconstitutionalrightlincolnhoweverdidsupportthecorwinamendmenttotheconstitutionwhichhadpassedincongressandprotectedslaveryinthosestateswhereitalreadyexistedafewweeksbeforethewarhewentsofarastopenalettertoeverygovernoraskingfortheirsupportinratifyingthecorwinamendmentasameanstoavoidsecession
thepresidentendedhisaddresswithanappealtothepeopleofthesouthwearenotenemiesbutfriendswemustnotbeenemiesthemysticchordsofmemorystretchingfromeverybattlefieldandpatriotgravetoeverylivingheartandhearthstonealloverthisbroadlandwillyetswellthechorusoftheunionwhenagaintouchedassurelytheywillbebythebetterangelsofournaturethefailureofthepeaceconferenceof1861signaledthatlegislativecompromisewasimplausiblebymarch1861noleadersoftheinsurrectionhadproposedrejoiningtheuniononanytermsmeanwhilelincolnandnearlyeveryrepublicanleaderagreedthatthedismantlingoftheunioncouldnotbetolerated
onapril15lincolncalledonthestatestosenddetachmentstotaling75000troopstorecapturefortsprotectwashingtondcandpreservetheunionwhichinhisviewstillexistedintactdespitetheactionsofthesecedingstatesthiscallforcedthestatestochoosesidesvirginiadeclareditssecessionandwasrewardedwiththeconfederatecapitaldespitetheexposedpositionofrichmondsoclosetounionlinesnorthcarolinatennesseeandarkansasalsovotedforsecessionoverthenexttwomonthssecessionsentimentwasstronginmissouriandmarylandbutdidnotprevailkentuckytriedtobeneutral
troopsheadedsouthtowardswashingtontoprotectthecapitalinresponsetolincolnscallonapril19secessionistmobsinbaltimorethatcontrolledtheraillinksattackeduniontroopstravelingtothecapitalgeorgewilliambrownthemayorofbaltimoreandothersuspectmarylandpoliticianswerearrestedandimprisonedaslincolnsuspendedthewritofhabeascorpusjohnmerrymanaleaderinthesecessionistgroupinmarylandpetitionedchiefjusticerogertaneytoissueawritofhabeascorpussayinglincolnsactionofholdingmerrymanwithoutahearingwasunlawfultaneyissuedthewrittherebyorderingmerrymansreleasebutlincolnignoreditthroughoutthewarlincolncameunderheavyoftenvituperativeattackfrommostnortherndemocratscalledcopperheadsnottomentiontheconfederateswhosawhimastheembodimentoftheyankeethreat
afterthefalloffortsumterlincolnsoonrealizedtheimportanceoftakingimmediateexecutivecontrolofthewarandmakinganoverallstrategytoputdowntherebellionlincolnencounteredanunprecedentedpoliticalandmilitarycrisisandherespondedascommanderinchiefusingunprecedentedpowersheexpandedhiswarpowersandimposedablockadeonalltheconfederateshippingportsdisbursedfundsbeforeappropriationbycongressandcontroversiallysuspendedthewritofhabeascorpusalongthecorridorofwashingtonandphiladelphiaarrestingandimprisoningthousandsofsuspectedconfederatesympathizerswithoutwarrantthesuspensionofwritwasdoneinordertogiveunionenlistmentsfreeentryintothecapitollincolnwassupportedbycongressandthenorthernpublicfortheseactionsinadditionlincolnhadtocontendwithreinforcingstrongunionsympathiesintheborderslavestatesandkeepingthewarfrombecominganinternationalconflict
thewareffortwasthesourceofcontinueddisparagementoflincolnanddominatedhistimeandattentionfromthestartitwasclearthatbipartisansupportwouldbeessentialtosuccessinthewareffortandanymannerofcompromisealienatedfactionsonbothsidesoftheaislesuchastheappointmentofrepublicansanddemocratstocommandpositionsintheunionarmycopperheadsandotheropponentsofthewarcriticizedlincolnforrefusingtocompromiseontheslaveryissueconverselytheradicalrepublicanscriticizedhimformovingtooslowlyinabolishingslaveryonaugust61861lincolnsignedtheconfiscationactthatauthorizedjudiciaryproceedingstoconfiscateandfreeslaveswhowereusedtosupporttheconfederatewareffort
inlateaugust1861generaljohncfrémontcreatedcontroversyontherepublicansidewhenheissuedwithoutconsultinglincolnaproclamationofmartiallawinmissourihedeclaredthatanycitizenfoundbearingarmscouldbecourtmartialedandshotandthatslavesofpersonsaidingtherebellionwouldbefreedchargesofnegligenceinhiscommandofthedepartmentofthewestwerecompoundedwithallegationsoffraudandcorruptionlincolnoverruledfrémontsproclamationandhewasgivenanothercommandinnovemberthisdecisioninpartpreventedthesecessionofkentuckywhileincurringtheviolenceinthenorthlincolnsefforttoconsolidatekentuckypaidoffasunionenlistmentsincreasedbyover40000troopsfrommarylandkentuckyandmissouri
thetrentaffairoflate1861threatenedwarwithgreatbritaintheusnavyillegallyinterceptedabritishmerchantshipthetrentonthehighseasandseizedtwoconfederateenvoysbritainprotestedvehementlywhiletheuscheeredlincolnresolvedtheissuebyreleasingthetwomenandwarwassuccessfullyavertedwithbritainlincolnsforeignpolicyapproachhadbeeninitiallyhandsoffduetohisinexperienceheleftmostdiplomacyappointmentsandotherforeignpolicymatterstohissecretaryofstatewilliamsewardsewardsinitialreactiontothetrentaffairhoweverwastoobellicosesolincolnalsoturnedtosencharlessumnerthechairmanofthesenateforeignrelationscommitteeandanexpertinbritishdiplomacy
tolearntechnicalmilitarytermslincolnborrowedandstudiedhenryhallecksbookelementsofmilitaryartandsciencefromthelibraryofcongresslincolnpainstakinglymonitoredthetelegraphicreportscomingintothewardepartmentinwashingtondchekeptclosetabsonallphasesofthemilitaryeffortconsultedwithgovernorsandselectedgeneralsbasedontheirpastsuccessaswellastheirstateandpartyinjanuary1862aftermanycomplaintsofinefficiencyandprofiteeringinthewardepartmentlincolnreplacedcameronwithedwinstantonassecretarystantonprovedahighlyenergeticandefficientleaderofthewardepartmentandastrongsupporteroflincolnstantonendedcorruptiontookcontrolofthetelegraphandrailroadsystemsinthewarzonessupervisedrecruitmentandtrainingpurchasedmunitionsandsuppliesandevaluatedgeneralshealsoarrangedforsoldierstobehometovoteincrucialelectionsknowingtheywouldbe7585republicanstantonwasoneofmanyconservativedemocratshesupportedbreckenridgeinthe1860electionwhobecameantislaveryrepublicansunderlincolnsleadershipintermsofwarstrategylincolnarticulatedtwoprioritiestoensurethatwashingtonwaswelldefendedandtoconductanaggressivewareffortthatwouldsatisfythedemandinthenorthforpromptdecisivevictorymajornorthernnewspapereditorsexpectedvictorywithin90daystwiceaweeklincolnwouldmeetwithhiscabinetintheafternoonandoccasionallymarylincolnwouldforcehimtotakeacarriageridebecauseshewasconcernedhewasworkingtoohardlincolnhadlearnedfromgeneralwinfieldscotttheneedtocontrolstrategicpointssuchasthemississippiriverandhealsoknewwelltheimportanceofvicksburgandunderstoodthenecessityofdefeatingtheenemysarmyratherthansimplycapturingterritory
indianaffairsweretroubledbythesiouxuprisinginminnesotain1862wherelincolnapprovedthemilitarytrialandexecutionofindianswhohadattackedsettlerslincolnpaidlessattentiontothecivilwarinindianterritoryandthenavajoraidsinthesouthwest
aftertheuniondefeatatthefirstbattleofbullrunandtheretirementoftheagedwinfieldscottinlate1861lincolnappointedmajorgeneralgeorgebmcclellangeneralinchiefofalltheunionarmiesmcclellanayoungwestpointgraduaterailroadexecutiveandpennsylvaniademocrattookseveralmonthstoplanandattempthispeninsulacampaignlongerthanlincolnwantedthecampaignsobjectivewastocapturerichmondbymovingthearmyofthepotomacbyboattothepeninsulaandthenoverlandtotheconfederatecapitalmcclellansrepeateddelaysfrustratedlincolnandcongressasdidhispositionthatnotroopswereneededtodefendwashingtonlincolninsistedonholdingsomeofmcclellanstroopsindefenseofthecapitalmcclellanwhoconsistentlyoverestimatedthestrengthofconfederatetroopsblamedthisdecisionfortheultimatefailureofthepeninsulacampaign
lincolnremovedmcclellanasgeneralinchiefandappointedhenrywagerhalleckinmarch1862aftermcclellansharrisonslandingletterinwhichheofferedunsolicitedpoliticaladvicetolincolnurgingcautioninthewareffortmcclellansletterincensedradicalrepublicanswhosuccessfullypressuredlincolntoappointjohnpopearepublicanasheadofthenewarmyofvirginiapopecompliedwithlincolnsstrategicdesiretomovetowardrichmondfromthenorththusprotectingthecapitalfromattackhoweverlackingrequestedreinforcementsfrommcclellannowcommandingthearmyofthepotomacpopewassoundlydefeatedatthesecondbattleofbullruninthesummerof1862forcingthearmyofthepotomactodefendwashingtonforasecondtimethewaralsoexpandedwithnavaloperationsin1862whenthecssvirginiaformerlytheussmerrimackdamagedordestroyedthreeunionvesselsinnorfolkvirginiabeforebeingengagedanddamagedbytheussmonitorlincolncloselyreviewedthedispatchesandinterrogatednavalofficersduringtheirclashinthebattleofhamptonroads
despitehisdissatisfactionwithmcclellansfailuretoreinforcepopelincolnwasdesperateandrestoredhimtocommandofallforcesaroundwashingtontothedismayofallinhiscabinetbutsewardtwodaysaftermcclellansreturntocommandgeneralroberteleesforcescrossedthepotomacriverintomarylandleadingtothebattleofantietaminseptember1862theensuingunionvictorywasamongthebloodiestinamericanhistorybutitenabledlincolntoannouncethathewouldissueanemancipationproclamationinjanuaryhavingcomposedtheproclamationsometimeearlierlincolnhadwaitedforamilitaryvictorytopublishittoavoiditbeingperceivedastheproductofdesperationmcclellanthenresistedthepresidentsdemandthathepursueleesretreatingandexposedarmywhilehiscounterpartgeneraldoncarlosbuelllikewiserefusedorderstomovethearmyoftheohioagainstrebelforcesineasterntennesseeasaresultlincolnreplacedbuellwithwilliamrosecransandafterthe1862midtermelectionshereplacedmcclellanwithrepublicanambroseburnsidebothofthesereplacementswerepoliticalmoderatesandprospectivelymoresupportiveofthecommanderinchief
burnsideagainsttheadviceofthepresidentprematurelylaunchedanoffensiveacrosstherappahannockriverandwasstunninglydefeatedbyleeatfredericksburgindecembernotonlyhadburnsidebeendefeatedonthebattlefieldbuthissoldiersweredisgruntledandundisciplineddesertionsduring1863wereinthethousandsandtheyincreasedafterfredericksburglincolnbroughtinjosephhookerdespitehishistoryofloosetalkaboutamilitarydictatorship
themidtermelectionsin1862broughttherepublicansseverelossesduetosharpdisfavorwiththeadministrationoveritsfailuretodeliveraspeedyendtothewaraswellasrisinginflationnewhightaxesrumorsofcorruptionthesuspensionofhabeascorpusthemilitarydraftlawandfearsthatfreedslaveswouldunderminethelabormarkettheemancipationproclamationannouncedinseptembergainedvotesfortherepublicansintheruralareasofnewenglandandtheuppermidwestbutitlostvotesinthecitiesandthelowermidwestwhilerepublicanswerediscourageddemocratswereenergizedanddidespeciallywellinpennsylvaniaohioindianaandnewyorktherepublicansdidmaintaintheirmajoritiesincongressandinthemajorstatesexceptnewyorkthecincinnatigazettecontendedthatthevotersweredepressedbytheinterminablenatureofthiswarassofarconductedandbytherapidexhaustionofthenationalresourceswithoutprogress
inthespringof1863lincolnwasoptimisticaboutagroupofupcomingbattleplanstothepointofthinkingtheendofthewarcouldbenearifastringofvictoriescouldbeputtogethertheseplansincludedhookersattackonleenorthofrichmondrosecransonchattanoogagrantsonvicksburgandanavalassaultoncharlestonlincolnbecamedespondentwhennoneoftheseplansatleastinitiallysucceeded
hookerwasroutedbyleeatthebattleofchancellorsvilleinmaybutcontinuedtocommandhistroopsforsomeweeksheignoredlincolnsordertodividehistroopsandpossiblyforceleetodothesameinharpersferryandtenderedhisresignationwhichlincolnacceptedhewasreplacedbygeorgemeadewhofollowedleeintopennsylvaniaforthegettysburgcampaignwhichwasavictoryfortheunionthoughleesarmyavoidedcaptureatthesametimeafterinitialsetbacksgrantlaidsiegetovicksburgandtheunionnavyattainedsomesuccessincharlestonharborafterthebattleofgettysburglincolnclearlyunderstoodthathismilitarydecisionswouldbemoreeffectivelycarriedoutbyconveyinghisordersthroughhiswarsecretaryorhisgeneralinchiefontohisgeneralswhoresentedhiscivilianinterferencewiththeirownplansevensoheoftencontinuedtogivedetaileddirectionstohisgeneralsascommanderinchief
lincolnunderstoodthatthefederalgovernmentspowertoendslaverywaslimitedbytheconstitutionwhichbefore1865committedtheissuetoindividualstateshearguedbeforeandduringhiselectionthattheeventualextinctionofslaverywouldresultfrompreventingitsexpansionintonewusterritoryatthebeginningofthewarhealsosoughttopersuadethestatestoacceptcompensatedemancipationinreturnfortheirprohibitionofslaveryanofferthattookeffectonlyinwashingtondcinapril1862lincolnbelievedthatcurtailingslaveryinthesewayswouldeconomicallyexpungeitasenvisionedbythefoundingfathersundertheconstitutionpresidentlincolnrejectedtwogeographicallylimitedemancipationattemptsbymajorgeneraljohncfrémontinaugust1861andbymajorgeneraldavidhunterinmay1862onthegroundsthatitwasnotwithintheirpoweranditwouldupsettheborderstatesloyaltotheunion
onjune191862congresspassedanactbanningslaveryonallfederalterritoryandinjuly1862passedthesecondconfiscationactwhichsetupcourtproceduresthatcouldfreetheslavesofanyoneconvictedofaidingtherebellionalthoughlincolnbelieveditwasnotwithincongressspowertofreetheslaveswithinthestatesheapprovedthebillindeferencetothelegislaturehefeltsuchactioncouldonlybetakenbythecommanderinchiefusingwarpowersgrantedtothepresidentbytheconstitutionandlincolnwasplanningtotakethatactioninthatmonthlincolndiscussedadraftoftheemancipationproclamationwithhiscabinetinithestatedthatasafitandnecessarymilitarymeasureonjanuary11863allpersonsheldasaslavesintheconfederatestateswillthenceforwardandforeverbefree
privatelylincolnconcludedatthispointthatthewarcouldnotbewonwithoutfreeingtheslaveshoweverconfederateandantiwarpropagandistshadsuccessspreadingthethemethatemancipationwasastumblingblocktopeaceandreunificationrepublicaneditorhoracegreeleyofthehighlyinfluentialnewyorktribunefellfortheployandlincolnrefuteditdirectlyinashrewdletterofaugust221862thepresidentsaidtheprimarygoalofhisactionsaspresidentheusedthefirstpersonpronounandexplicitlyreferstohisofficialdutywaspreservingtheunionlincolnhadoverandoveragainmadeclearthathewantedthestatestoemancipatetheslaveswhichtheyofficiallydidin1865byratifyingthethirteenthamendmenthisroleinleadingthenationalarmywouldbetosavetheunionusingeverytoolavailableincludingcompleteorpartialemancipationheemployedpartialemancipationasfortheconfederatestheywouldreturnonlyatthepointofabayonet
theemancipationproclamationissuedonseptember221862andputintoeffectonjanuary11863declaredfreetheslavesintenstatesnotthenunderunioncontrolwithexemptionsspecifiedforareasalreadyunderunioncontrolintwostatesoncetheabolitionofslaveryintherebelstatesbecameamilitaryobjectiveasunionarmiesadvancedsouthmoreslaveswereliberateduntiloverthreemillionoftheminconfederateterritorywerefreedlincolnscommentonthesigningoftheproclamationwasineverinmylifefeltmorecertainthatiwasdoingrightthanidoinsigningthispaperforsometimelincolncontinuedearlierplanstosetupcoloniesforthenewlyfreedslaveshecommentedfavorablyoncolonizationintheemancipationproclamationbutallattemptsatsuchamassiveundertakingfailedafewdaysafteremancipationwasannounced13republicangovernorsmetatthewargovernorsconferencetheysupportedthepresidentsproclamationbutsuggestedtheremovalofgeneralgeorgebmcclellanascommanderoftheunionarmy
usingformerslavesinthemilitarywasofficialgovernmentpolicyaftertheissuanceoftheemancipationproclamationatfirstlincolnwasreluctanttofullyimplementthisprogrambutbythespringof1863hewasreadytoinitiateamassiverecruitmentofnegrotroopsinalettertoandrewjohnsonthemilitarygovernoroftennesseeencouraginghimtoleadthewayinraisingblacktroopslincolnwrotethebaresightof50000armedanddrilledblacksoldiersonthebanksofthemississippiwouldendtherebellionatoncebytheendof1863atlincolnsdirectiongenerallorenzothomashadrecruited20regimentsofblacksfromthemississippivalleyfrederickdouglassonceobservedoflincolninhiscompanyiwasneverremindedofmyhumbleoriginorofmyunpopularcolor
withthegreatunionvictoryatthebattleofgettysburginjuly1863andthedefeatofthecopperheadsintheohioelectioninthefalllincolnmaintainedastrongbaseofpartysupportandwasinastrongpositiontoredefinethewareffortdespitethenewyorkcitydraftriotsthestagewassetforhisaddressatthegettysburgbattlefieldcemeteryonnovember19defyinglincolnspredictionthattheworldwilllittlenotenorlongrememberwhatwesayheretheaddressbecamethemostquotedspeechinamericanhistory
thegettysburgaddresswasdeliveredatthededicationofthesoldiersnationalcemeteryingettysburgpennsylvaniaontheafternoonofthursdaynovember191863in272wordsandthreeminuteslincolnassertedthenationwasbornnotin1789butin1776conceivedinlibertyanddedicatedtothepropositionthatallmenarecreatedequalhedefinedthewarasaneffortdedicatedtotheseprinciplesoflibertyandequalityforalltheemancipationofslaveswasnowpartofthenationalwarefforthedeclaredthatthedeathsofsomanybravesoldierswouldnotbeinvainthatslaverywouldendasaresultofthelossesandthefutureofdemocracywouldbeassuredthatgovernmentofthepeoplebythepeopleforthepeopleshallnotperishfromtheearthlincolnconcludedthatthecivilwarhadaprofoundobjectiveanewbirthoffreedominthenation
meadesfailuretocaptureleesarmyasitretreatedfromgettysburgandthecontinuedpassivityofthearmyofthepotomacpersuadedlincolnthatachangeincommandwasneededgeneralulyssessgrantsvictoriesatthebattleofshilohandinthevicksburgcampaignimpressedlincolnandmadegrantastrongcandidatetoheadtheunionarmyrespondingtocriticismofgrantaftershilohlincolnhadsaidicantsparethismanhefightswithgrantincommandlincolnfelttheunionarmycouldrelentlesslypursueaseriesofcoordinatedoffensivesinmultipletheatersandhaveatopcommanderwhoagreedontheuseofblacktroops
neverthelesslincolnwasconcernedthatgrantmightbeconsideringacandidacyforpresidentin1864asmcclellanwaslincolnarrangedforanintermediarytomakeinquiryintograntspoliticalintentionsandbeingassuredthathehadnonesubmittedtothesenategrantspromotiontocommanderoftheunionarmyheobtainedcongresssconsenttoreinstateforgranttherankoflieutenantgeneralwhichnoofficerhadheldsincegeorgewashington
grantwagedhisbloodyoverlandcampaignin1864thisisoftencharacterizedasawarofattritiongivenhighunionlossesatbattlessuchasthebattleofthewildernessandcoldharboreventhoughtheyhadtheadvantageoffightingonthedefensivetheconfederateforceshadalmostashighapercentageofcasualtiesastheunionforcesthehighcasualtyfiguresoftheunionalarmedthenorthgranthadlostathirdofhisarmyandlincolnaskedwhatgrantsplansweretowhichthegeneralrepliediproposetofightitoutonthislineifittakesallsummer
theconfederacylackedreinforcementssoleesarmyshrankwitheverybattleforcingitbacktotrenchesoutsidepetersburgvirginiawheregrantbeganasiegelincolnthenmadeanextendedvisittograntsheadquartersatcitypointvirginiathisallowedthepresidenttoconferinpersonwithgrantandwilliamtecumsehshermanaboutthehostilitiesasshermancoincidentallymanagedahastyvisittograntfromhispositioninnorthcarolinalincolnandtherepublicanpartymobilizedsupportforthedraftthroughoutthenorthandreplacedhislosses
lincolnauthorizedgranttotargettheconfederateinfrastructuresuchasplantationsrailroadsandbridgeshopingtodestroythesouthsmoraleandweakenitseconomicabilitytocontinuefightinggrantsmovetopetersburgresultedintheobstructionofthreerailroadsbetweenrichmondandthesouththisstrategyallowedgeneralsshermanandphilipsheridantodestroyplantationsandtownsinvirginiasshenandoahvalleythedamagecausedbyshermansmarchtotheseathroughgeorgiain1864waslimitedtoaswathbutneitherlincolnnorhiscommanderssawdestructionasthemaingoalbutratherdefeatoftheconfederatearmiesasneely2004concludestherewasnoefforttoengageintotalwaragainstciviliansasinworldwarii
confederategeneraljubalandersonearlybeganaseriesofassaultsinthenorththatthreatenedthecapitalduringhisraidonwashingtondcin1864lincolnwaswatchingthecombatfromanexposedpositioncaptainoliverwendellholmesshoutedathimgetdownyoudamnfoolbeforeyougetshotafterrepeatedcallsongranttodefendwashingtonsheridanwasappointedandthethreatfromearlywasdispatched
asgrantcontinuedtoweardownleesforceseffortstodiscusspeacebeganconfederatevicepresidentstephensledagrouptomeetwithlincolnsewardandothersathamptonroadslincolnrefusedtoallowanynegotiationwiththeconfederacyasacoequalhissoleobjectivewasanagreementtoendthefightingandthemeetingsproducednoresultsonapril1grantsuccessfullyoutflankedleesforcesinthebattleoffiveforksandnearlyencircledpetersburgandtheconfederategovernmentevacuatedrichmonddayslaterwhenthatcityfelllincolnvisitedthevanquishedconfederatecapitalashewalkedthroughthecitywhitesouthernerswerestonefacedbutfreedmengreetedhimasaheroonapril9leesurrenderedtograntatappomattoxandthewarwaseffectivelyover
lincolnwasamasterpoliticianbringingtogetherandholdingtogetherallthemainfactionsoftherepublicanpartyandbringinginwardemocratssuchasedwinmstantonandandrewjohnsonaswelllincolnspentmanyhoursaweektalkingtopoliticiansfromacrossthelandandusinghispatronagepowersgreatlyexpandedoverpeacetimetoholdthefactionsofhispartytogetherbuildsupportforhisownpoliciesandfendoffeffortsbyradicalstodrophimfromthe1864ticketatits1864conventiontherepublicanpartyselectedandrewjohnsonawardemocratfromthesouthernstateoftennesseeashisrunningmatetobroadenhiscoalitiontoincludewardemocratsaswellasrepublicanslincolnranunderthelabelofthenewunionparty
whengrantsspringcampaignsturnedintobloodystalematesandunioncasualtiesmountedthelackofmilitarysuccessworeheavilyonthepresidentsreelectionprospectsandmanyrepublicansacrossthecountryfearedthatlincolnwouldbedefeatedsharingthisfearlincolnwroteandsignedapledgethatifheshouldlosetheelectionhewouldstilldefeattheconfederacybeforeturningoverthewhitehouselincolndidnotshowthepledgetohiscabinetbutaskedthemtosignthesealedenvelope
whilethedemocraticplatformfollowedthepeacewingofthepartyandcalledthewarafailuretheircandidategeneralgeorgebmcclellansupportedthewarandrepudiatedtheplatformlincolnprovidedgrantwithmoretroopsandmobilizedhispartytorenewitssupportofgrantinthewareffortshermanscaptureofatlantainseptemberanddavidfarragutscaptureofmobileendeddefeatistjittersthedemocraticpartywasdeeplysplitwithsomeleadersandmostsoldiersopenlyforlincolnbycontrastthenationalunionpartywasunitedandenergizedaslincolnmadeemancipationthecentralissueandstaterepublicanpartiesstressedtheperfidyofthecopperheadslincolnwasreelectedinalandslidecarryingallbutthreestatesandreceiving78percentoftheunionsoldiersvote
onmarch41865lincolndeliveredhissecondinauguraladdressinithedeemedthehighcasualtiesonbothsidestobegodswillhistorianmarknollconcludesitranksamongthesmallhandfulofsemisacredtextsbywhichamericansconceivetheirplaceintheworldlincolnsaid
reconstructionbeganduringthewaraslincolnandhisassociatesanticipatedquestionsofhowtoreintegratetheconqueredsouthernstatesandhowtodeterminethefatesofconfederateleadersandfreedslavesshortlyafterleessurrenderageneralhadaskedlincolnhowthedefeatedconfederatesshouldbetreatedandlincolnrepliedletemupeasyinkeepingwiththatsentimentlincolnledthemoderatesregardingreconstructionpolicyandwasopposedbytheradicalrepublicansunderrepthaddeusstevenssencharlessumnerandsenbenjaminwadepoliticalalliesofthepresidentonotherissuesdeterminedtofindacoursethatwouldreunitethenationandnotalienatethesouthlincolnurgedthatspeedyelectionsundergeneroustermsbeheldthroughoutthewarhisamnestyproclamationofdecember81863offeredpardonstothosewhohadnotheldaconfederatecivilofficehadnotmistreatedunionprisonersandwouldsignanoathofallegianceassouthernstatesweresubduedcriticaldecisionshadtobemadeastotheirleadershipwhiletheiradministrationswerereformedofspecialimportanceweretennesseeandarkansaswherelincolnappointedgeneralsandrewjohnsonandfredericksteeleasmilitarygovernorsrespectivelyinlouisianalincolnorderedgeneralnathanielpbankstopromoteaplanthatwouldrestorestatehoodwhen10ofthevotersagreedtoitlincolnsdemocraticopponentsseizedontheseappointmentstoaccusehimofusingthemilitarytoinsurehisandtherepublicanspoliticalaspirationsontheotherhandtheradicalsdenouncedhispolicyastoolenientandpassedtheirownplanthewadedavisbillin1864whenlincolnvetoedthebilltheradicalsretaliatedbyrefusingtoseatrepresentativeselectedfromlouisianaarkansasandtennessee
lincolnsappointmentsweredesignedtokeepboththemoderateandradicalfactionsinharnesstofillthelatechiefjusticetaneysseatonthesupremecourthenamedthechoiceoftheradicalssalmonpchasewholincolnbelievedwouldupholdtheemancipationandpapermoneypolicies
afterimplementingtheemancipationproclamationwhichdidnotapplytoeverystatelincolnincreasedpressureoncongresstooutlawslaverythroughouttheentirenationwithaconstitutionalamendmentlincolndeclaredthatsuchanamendmentwouldclinchthewholematterbydecember1863aproposedconstitutionalamendmentthatwouldoutlawslaveryabsolutelywasbroughttocongressforpassagethisfirstattemptatanamendmentfailedtopassfallingshortoftherequiredtwothirdsmajorityonjune151864inthehouseofrepresentativesafteralongdebateinthehouseasecondattemptpassedcongressonjanuary131865andwassenttothestatelegislaturesforratificationuponratificationitbecamethethirteenthamendmenttotheunitedstatesconstitutionondecember61865
asthewardrewtoacloselincolnspresidentialreconstructionforthesouthwasinfluxhavingbelievedthefederalgovernmenthadlimitedresponsibilitytothemillionsoffreedmenhesignedintolawsencharlessumnersfreedmansbureaubillthatsetupatemporaryfederalagencydesignedtomeettheimmediatematerialneedsofformerslavesthelawassignedlandforaleaseofthreeyearswiththeabilitytopurchasetitleforthefreedmenlincolnstatedthathislouisianaplandidnotapplytoallstatesunderreconstructionshortlybeforehisassassinationlincolnannouncedhehadanewplanforsouthernreconstructiondiscussionswithhiscabinetrevealedlincolnplannedshorttermmilitarycontroloversouthernstatesuntilreadmissionunderthecontrolofsouthernunionists
inrecentyearshistorianshavestressedlincolnsredefinitionofrepublicanvaluesasearlyasthe1850satimewhenmostpoliticalrhetoricfocusedonthesanctityoftheconstitutionlincolnredirectedemphasistothedeclarationofindependenceasthefoundationofamericanpoliticalvalueswhathecalledthesheetanchorofrepublicanismthedeclarationsemphasisonfreedomandequalityforallincontrasttotheconstitutionstoleranceofslaveryshiftedthedebateasdigginsconcludesregardingthehighlyinfluentialcooperunionspeechofearly1860lincolnpresentedamericansatheoryofhistorythatoffersaprofoundcontributiontothetheoryanddestinyofrepublicanismitselfhispositiongainedstrengthbecausehehighlightedthemoralbasisofrepublicanismratherthanitslegalismsneverthelessin1861lincolnjustifiedthewarintermsoflegalismstheconstitutionwasacontractandforonepartytogetoutofacontractalltheotherpartieshadtoagreeandthenintermsofthenationaldutytoguaranteearepublicanformofgovernmentineverystate
lincolnadheredtothewhigtheoryofthepresidencywhichgavecongressprimaryresponsibilityforwritingthelawswhiletheexecutiveenforcedthemlincolnonlyvetoedfourbillspassedbycongresstheonlyimportantonewasthewadedavisbillwithitsharshprogramofreconstructionhesignedthehomesteadactin1862makingmillionsofacresofgovernmentheldlandinthewestavailableforpurchaseatverylowcostthemorrilllandgrantcollegesactalsosignedin1862providedgovernmentgrantsforagriculturalcollegesineachstatethepacificrailwayactsof1862and1864grantedfederalsupportfortheconstructionoftheunitedstatesfirsttranscontinentalrailroadwhichwascompletedin1869thepassageofthehomesteadactandthepacificrailwayactswasmadepossiblebytheabsenceofsoutherncongressmenandsenatorswhohadopposedthemeasuresinthe1850s
otherimportantlegislationinvolvedtwomeasurestoraiserevenuesforthefederalgovernmenttariffsapolicywithlongprecedentandanewfederalincometaxin1861lincolnsignedthesecondandthirdmorrilltariffthefirsthavingbecomelawunderjamesbuchananin1861lincolnsignedtherevenueactof1861creatingthefirstusincometaxthiscreatedaflattaxof3percentonincomesabove800incurrentdollarswhichwaslaterchangedbytherevenueactof1862toaprogressiveratestructure
lincolnalsopresidedovertheexpansionofthefederalgovernmentseconomicinfluenceinseveralotherareasthecreationofthesystemofnationalbanksbythenationalbankingactprovidedastrongfinancialnetworkinthecountryitalsoestablishedanationalcurrencyin1862congresscreatedwithlincolnsapprovalthedepartmentofagriculturein1862lincolnsentaseniorgeneraljohnpopetoputdownthesiouxuprisinginminnesotapresentedwith303executionwarrantsforconvictedsanteedakotawhowereaccusedofkillinginnocentfarmerslincolnconductedhisownpersonalreviewofeachofthesewarrantseventuallyapproving39forexecutiononewaslaterreprievedduringthecivilwartherewerebetween14500and20000westernrecruitsstationedinthetransmississippiwestterritoriesandstatestofightamericanindianspresidentlincolnhadplannedtoreformfederalindianpolicythatreliedheavilyoncongressionalpatronageandcorruptagentsaftertheamericancivilwar
inthewakeofgrantscasualtiesinhiscampaignagainstleelincolnhadconsideredyetanotherexecutivecallforamilitarydraftbutitwasneverissuedinresponsetorumorsofonehowevertheeditorsofthenewyorkworldandthejournalofcommercepublishedafalsedraftproclamationwhichcreatedanopportunityfortheeditorsandothersemployedatthepublicationstocornerthegoldmarketlincolnsreactionwastosendthestrongestofmessagestothemediaaboutsuchbehaviorheorderedthemilitarytoseizethetwopaperstheseizurelastedfortwodays
lincolnislargelyresponsiblefortheinstitutionofthethanksgivingholidayintheunitedstatesbeforelincolnspresidencythanksgivingwhilearegionalholidayinnewenglandsincethe17thcenturyhadonlybeenproclaimedbythefederalgovernmentsporadicallyandonirregulardatesthelastsuchproclamationhadbeenduringjamesmadisonspresidency50yearsbeforein1863lincolndeclaredthefinalthursdayinnovemberofthatyeartobeadayofthanksgiving
lincolnsdeclaredphilosophyoncourtnominationswasthatwecannotaskamanwhathewilldoandifweshouldandheshouldanswerusweshoulddespisehimforitthereforewemusttakeamanwhoseopinionsareknownlincolnmadefiveappointmentstotheunitedstatessupremecourtnoahhaynesswaynenominatedjanuary211862andappointedjanuary241862waschosenasanantislaverylawyerwhowascommittedtotheunionsamuelfreemanmillernominatedandappointedonjuly161862supportedlincolninthe1860electionandwasanavowedabolitionistdaviddavislincolnscampaignmanagerin1860nominateddecember11862andappointeddecember81862hadalsoservedasajudgeinlincolnsillinoiscourtcircuitstephenjohnsonfieldapreviouscaliforniasupremecourtjusticewasnominatedmarch61863andappointedmarch101863andprovidedgeographicbalanceaswellaspoliticalbalancetothecourtasademocratfinallylincolnstreasurysecretarysalmonpchasewasnominatedaschiefjusticeandappointedthesamedayondecember61864chasealsobroughttothecourthisexperienceasussenatorandgovernorofohio
lincolnsbodyguardjohnparkerleftfordstheaterduringintermissiontojoinlincolnscoachmanfordrinksinthestarsaloonnextdoorthenowunguardedpresidentsatinhisstateboxinthebalconyseizingtheopportunityboothcreptupfrombehindandatabout1013pmaimedatthebackoflincolnsheadandfiredatpointblankrangemortallywoundingthepresidentmajorhenryrathbonemomentarilygrappledwithboothbutboothstabbedhimandescaped
afterbeingontherunfortendaysboothwastrackeddownandfoundonafarminvirginiasomesouthofwashingtondcafterabrieffightboothwaskilledbyunionsoldiersonapril26
anarmysurgeondoctorcharleslealeassessedlincolnswoundasmortalthedyingmanwastakenacrossthestreettopetersenhouseafterbeinginacomaforninehourslincolndiedat722amonapril15presbyterianministerphineasdensmoregurleythenpresentwasaskedtoofferaprayerafterwhichsecretaryofwarstantonsalutedandsaidnowhebelongstotheages
inthe1840slincolnsubscribedtothedoctrineofnecessityabeliefthatassertedthehumanmindwascontrolledbysomehigherpowersomescholarsmaintainthatinthe1850slincolnacknowledgedprovidenceinageneralwayandrarelyusedthelanguageorimageryoftheevangelicalsinsteadtheyargueheregardedtherepublicanismofthefoundingfatherswithanalmostreligiousreverencesomehistoriansalsoconcludethatwhenhesufferedthedeathofhissonedwardlincolnmorefrequentlyacknowledgedhisownneedtodependongod
aslincolngrewoldersomeasserttheideaofadivinewillsomehowinteractingwithhumanaffairsincreasinglyinfluencedhisbeliefsandpublicexpressionsonapersonallevelthedeathofhissonwillieinfebruary1862issaidtohavecausedlincolntolooktowardsreligionforanswersandsolaceafterwilliesdeathinthesummerorearlyfallof1862lincolnapparentlyattemptedtoputonpaperhisprivatethoughtsonwhyfromadivinestandpointtheseverityofthewarwasnecessaryhewroteatthistimethatgodcouldhaveeithersavedordestroyedtheunionwithoutahumancontestyetthecontestbeganandhavingbegunhecouldgivethefinalvictorytoeithersideanydayyetthecontestproceedsinapril1864discussingemancipationlincolnwroteiclaimnottohavecontrolledeventsbutconfessplainlythateventshavecontrolledmenowattheendofthreeyearsstrugglethenationsconditionisnotwhateitherpartyoranymandevisedorexpectedgodalonecanclaimit
insurveysofscholarsrankingpresidentslincolnisrankedinthetopthreeoften1a2004studyfoundthatscholarsinthefieldsofhistoryandpoliticsrankedlincolnnumberonewhilelegalscholarsplacedhimsecondafterwashington
presidentlincolnsassassinationmadehimanationalmartyrandendowedhimwitharecognitionofmythicproportionlincolnwasviewedbyabolitionistsasachampionforhumanlibertyrepublicanslinkedlincolnsnametotheirpartymanythoughnotallinthesouthconsideredlincolnasamanofoutstandingabilitylincolnsreputationgrewslowlyinthelate19thcenturyuntiltheprogressiveera19001920swhenlincolnemergedasoneofthemostveneratedheroesinamericanhistorywithevenwhitesouthernersinagreementthehighpointcamein1922withthededicationofthelincolnmemorialonthemallinwashingtoninthenewdealeraliberalshonoredlincolnnotsomuchastheselfmademanorthegreatwarpresidentbutastheadvocateofthecommonmanwhodoubtlesswouldhavesupportedthewelfarestateinthecoldwaryearslincolnsimageshiftedtoemphasizethesymboloffreedomwhobroughthopetothoseoppressedbycommunistregimes
inrecentdecadeslincolnbecameaherotopoliticalconservativesapartfromneoconfederatesforhisintensenationalismsupportforbusinesshisinsistenceonstoppingthespreadofunfreedomslaveryhisactingintermsoflockeanandburkeanprinciplesandhisdevotiontotheprinciplesofthefoundingfathersasawhigactivistlincolnwasaspokesmanforbusinessinterestsfavoringhightariffsbanksinternalimprovementsandrailroadsinoppositiontotheagrariandemocratswilliamcharrisfoundthatlincolnsreverenceforthefoundingfatherstheconstitutionthelawsunderitandthepreservationoftherepublicanditsinstitutionsundergirdedandstrengthenedhisconservatismjamesgrandallemphasizeshistoleranceandhisespeciallyhismoderationinhispreferencefororderlyprogresshisdistrustofdangerousagitationandhisreluctancetowardilldigestedschemesofreformrandallconcludesthathewasconservativeinhiscompleteavoidanceofthattypeofsocalledradicalismwhichinvolvedabuseofthesouthhatredfortheslaveholderthirstforvengeancepartisanplottingandungenerousdemandsthatsoutherninstitutionsbetransformedovernightbyoutsiders
bythelate1960sliberalswerehavingsecondthoughtsespeciallyregardinglincolnsviewsonracialissuesblackhistorianleronebennettwonwideattentionwhenhecalledlincolnawhitesupremacistin1968criticscomplainedthatlincolnusedethnicslurstoldjokesthatridiculedblacksinsistedheopposedsocialequalityandproposedsendingfreedslavestoanothercountrydefendersretortedthathewasnotasbadasmostpoliticiansandthathewasamoralvisionarywhodeftlyadvancedtheabolitionistcauseasfastaspoliticallypossibletheemphasisshiftedawayfromlincolntheemancipatortoanargumentthatblackshadfreedthemselvesfromslaveryoratleastwereresponsibleforpressuringthegovernmentonemancipationdespitethestillhighrankingsforlincolninmanypollshistorianbarryschwartzwrotein2009thatlincolnsimagesufferederosionfadingprestigebenignridiculeinthelate20thcenturydonaldinhis1996biographyopinedthatlincolnwasdistinctlyendowedwiththepersonalitytraitofnegativecapabilitydefinedbythepoetjohnkeatsandattributedtoextraordinaryleaderswhowerecontentinthemidstofuncertaintiesanddoubtsandnotcompelledtowardfactorreason
abrahamlincolnsbirthdayfebruary12wasneveranationalholidaybutitwasatonetimeobservedbyasmanyas30statestheabrahamlincolnassociationwasformedin1908tocommemoratethecentennialoflincolnsbirthin2000congressestablishedtheabrahamlincolnbicentennialcommissionalbctocommemoratehis200thbirthdayinfebruary2009
lincolnsitesremainpopulartouristattractionsbutcrowdshavethinnedinthelate1960s650000peopleayearvisitedthehomeinspringfieldslippingto393000in20002003likewisevisitstonewsalemfellbyhalfprobablybecauseoftheenormousdrawofthenewmuseuminspringfieldvisitstothelincolnmemorialinwashingtonpeakedat43millionin1987andhavesincedeclinedhowevercrowdsatfordstheatreinwashingtonhavegrownsharply
aristotélēs
aristotlearistotélēs384bc322bcwasagreekphilosopherandpolymathastudentofplatoandteacherofalexanderthegreathiswritingscovermanysubjectsincludingphysicsmetaphysicspoetrytheatermusiclogicrhetoriclinguisticspoliticsgovernmentethicsbiologyandzoologytogetherwithplatoandsocratesplatosteacheraristotleisoneofthemostimportantfoundingfiguresinwesternphilosophyaristotleswritingswerethefirsttocreateacomprehensivesystemofwesternphilosophyencompassingmoralityandaestheticslogicandsciencepoliticsandmetaphysics
aristotlesviewsonthephysicalsciencesprofoundlyshapedmedievalscholarshipandtheirinfluenceextendedwellintotherenaissancealthoughtheywereultimatelyreplacedbynewtonianphysicsinthezoologicalsciencessomeofhisobservationswereconfirmedtobeaccurateonlyinthe19thcenturyhisworkscontaintheearliestknownformalstudyoflogicwhichwasincorporatedinthelate19thcenturyintomodernformallogicinmetaphysicsaristotelianismhadaprofoundinfluenceonphilosophicalandtheologicalthinkingintheislamicandjewishtraditionsinthemiddleagesanditcontinuestoinfluencechristiantheologyespeciallythescholastictraditionofthecatholicchurchhisethicsthoughalwaysinfluentialgainedrenewedinterestwiththemodernadventofvirtueethicsallaspectsofaristotlesphilosophycontinuetobetheobjectofactiveacademicstudytodaythougharistotlewrotemanyeleganttreatisesanddialoguescicerodescribedhisliterarystyleasariverofgold
aristotlewasborninstageirachalcidicein384bcabouteastofmoderndaythessalonikihisfathernicomachuswasthepersonalphysiciantokingamyntasofmacedonaristotlewastrainedandeducatedasamemberofthearistocracyatabouttheageofeighteenhewenttoathenstocontinuehiseducationatplatosacademyaristotleremainedattheacademyfornearlytwentyyearsbeforequittingathensin34847bcthetraditionalstoryabouthisdeparturereportsthathewasdisappointedwiththedirectiontheacademytookaftercontrolpassedtoplatosnephewspeusippusuponhisdeathalthoughitispossiblethathefearedantimacedoniansentimentsandleftbeforeplatohaddiedhethentraveledwithxenocratestothecourtofhisfriendhermiasofatarneusinasiaminorwhileinasiaaristotletraveledwiththeophrastustotheislandoflesboswheretogethertheyresearchedthebotanyandzoologyoftheislandaristotlemarriedhermiassadoptivedaughterorniecepythiassheborehimadaughterwhomtheynamedpythiassoonafterhermiasdeatharistotlewasinvitedbyphilipiiofmacedontobecomethetutortohissonalexanderthegreatin343bc
by335bchehadreturnedtoathensestablishinghisownschoolthereknownasthelyceumaristotleconductedcoursesattheschoolforthenexttwelveyearswhileinathenshiswifepythiasdiedandaristotlebecameinvolvedwithherpyllisofstageirawhoborehimasonwhomhenamedafterhisfathernicomachusaccordingtothesudahealsohadaneromenospalaephatusofabydus
itisduringthisperiodinathensfrom335to323bcwhenaristotleisbelievedtohavecomposedmanyofhisworksaristotlewrotemanydialoguesonlyfragmentsofwhichsurvivedtheworksthathavesurvivedareintreatiseformandwerenotforthemostpartintendedforwidespreadpublicationastheyaregenerallythoughttobelectureaidsforhisstudentshismostimportanttreatisesincludephysicsmetaphysicsnicomacheanethicspoliticsdeanimaonthesoulandpoetics
aristotlenotonlystudiedalmosteverysubjectpossibleatthetimebutmadesignificantcontributionstomostoftheminphysicalsciencearistotlestudiedanatomyastronomyembryologygeographygeologymeteorologyphysicsandzoologyinphilosophyhewroteonaestheticsethicsgovernmentmetaphysicspoliticseconomicspsychologyrhetoricandtheologyhealsostudiededucationforeigncustomsliteratureandpoetryhiscombinedworksconstituteavirtualencyclopediaofgreekknowledgeithasbeensuggestedthataristotlewasprobablythelastpersontoknoweverythingtherewastobeknowninhisowntime
neartheendofalexanderslifealexanderbegantosuspectplotsagainsthimselfandthreatenedaristotleinlettersaristotlehadmadenosecretofhiscontemptforalexanderspretenseofdivinityandthekinghadexecutedaristotlesgrandnephewcallisthenesasatraitorawidespreadtraditioninantiquitysuspectedaristotleofplayingaroleinalexandersdeathbutthereislittleevidenceforthis
uponalexandersdeathantimacedoniansentimentinathensonceagainflaredeurymedonthehierophantdenouncedaristotlefornotholdingthegodsinhonoraristotlefledthecitytohismothersfamilyestateinchalcisexplainingiwillnotallowtheathenianstosintwiceagainstphilosophy
withtheprioranalyticsaristotleiscreditedwiththeearlieststudyofformallogicandhisconceptionofitwasthedominantformofwesternlogicuntil19thcenturyadvancesinmathematicallogickantstatedinthecritiqueofpurereasonthataristotlestheoryoflogiccompletelyaccountedforthecoreofdeductiveinference
aristotlesaysthatonthesubjectofreasoninghehadnothingelseonanearlierdatetospeakof
whatwetodaycallaristotelianlogicaristotlehimselfwouldhavelabeledanalyticsthetermlogichereservedtomeandialecticsmostofaristotlesworkisprobablynotinitsoriginalformsinceitwasmostlikelyeditedbystudentsandlaterlecturersthelogicalworksofaristotlewerecompiledintosixbooksinabouttheearly1stcenturyadcategoriesoninterpretationprioranalyticsposterioranalyticstopicsonsophisticalrefutations
theorderofthebooksortheteachingsfromwhichtheyarecomposedisnotcertainbutthislistwasderivedfromanalysisofaristotleswritingsitgoesfromthebasicstheanalysisofsimpletermsinthecategoriestheanalysisofpropositionsandtheirelementaryrelationsinoninterpretationtothestudyofmorecomplexformsnamelysyllogismsintheanalyticsanddialecticsinthetopicsandsophisticalrefutationsthefirstthreetreatisesformthecoreofthelogicaltheorystrictosensuthegrammarofthelanguageoflogicandthecorrectrulesofreasoningthereisonevolumeofaristotlesconcerninglogicnotfoundintheorganonnamelythefourthbookofmetaphysics
likehisteacherplatoaristotlesphilosophyaimsattheuniversalaristotlehoweverfoundtheuniversalinparticularthingswhichhecalledtheessenceofthingswhileplatofindsthattheuniversalexistsapartfromparticularthingsandisrelatedtothemastheirprototypeorexemplarforaristotlethereforephilosophicmethodimpliestheascentfromthestudyofparticularphenomenatotheknowledgeofessenceswhileforplatophilosophicmethodmeansthedescentfromaknowledgeofuniversalformsorideastoacontemplationofparticularimitationsoftheseforaristotleformstillreferstotheunconditionalbasisofphenomenabutisinstantiatedinaparticularsubstanceseeuniversalsandparticularsbelowinacertainsensearistotlesmethodisbothinductiveanddeductivewhileplatosisessentiallydeductivefromaprioriprinciples
inaristotlesterminologynaturalphilosophyisabranchofphilosophyexaminingthephenomenaofthenaturalworldandincludesfieldsthatwouldberegardedtodayasphysicsbiologyandothernaturalsciencesinmoderntimesthescopeofphilosophyhasbecomelimitedtomoregenericorabstractinquiriessuchasethicsandmetaphysicsinwhichlogicplaysamajorroletodaysphilosophytendstoexcludeempiricalstudyofthenaturalworldbymeansofthescientificmethodincontrastaristotlesphilosophicalendeavorsencompassedvirtuallyallfacetsofintellectualinquiry
inthelargersenseofthewordaristotlemakesphilosophycoextensivewithreasoningwhichhealsowoulddescribeassciencenotehoweverthathisuseofthetermsciencecarriesadifferentmeaningthanthatcoveredbythetermscientificmethodforaristotleallsciencedianoiaiseitherpracticalpoeticalortheoreticalmetaphysics1025b25bypracticalsciencehemeansethicsandpoliticsbypoeticalsciencehemeansthestudyofpoetryandtheotherfineartsbytheoreticalsciencehemeansphysicsmathematicsandmetaphysics
iflogicoranalyticsisregardedasastudypreliminarytophilosophythedivisionsofaristotelianphilosophywouldconsistof1logic2theoreticalphilosophyincludingmetaphysicsphysicsandmathematics3practicalphilosophyand4poeticalphilosophy
intheperiodbetweenhistwostaysinathensbetweenhistimesattheacademyandthelyceumaristotleconductedmostofthescientificthinkingandresearchforwhichheisrenownedtodayinfactmostofaristotleslifewasdevotedtothestudyoftheobjectsofnaturalsciencearistotlesmetaphysicscontainsobservationsonthenatureofnumbersbuthemadenooriginalcontributionstomathematicshedidhoweverperformoriginalresearchinthenaturalsciencesegbotanyzoologyphysicsastronomychemistrymeteorologyandseveralothersciences
aristotleswritingsonsciencearelargelyqualitativeasopposedtoquantitativebeginninginthe16thcenturyscientistsbeganapplyingmathematicstothephysicalsciencesandaristotlesworkinthisareawasdeemedhopelesslyinadequatehisfailingswerelargelyduetotheabsenceofconceptslikemassvelocityforceandtemperaturehehadaconceptionofspeedandtemperaturebutnoquantitativeunderstandingofthemwhichwaspartlyduetotheabsenceofbasicexperimentaldeviceslikeclocksandthermometers
hiswritingsprovideanaccountofmanyscientificobservationsamixtureofprecociousaccuracyandcuriouserrorsforexampleinhishistoryofanimalsheclaimedthathumanmaleshavemoreteeththanfemalesinasimilarveinjohnphiloponusandlatergalileoshowedbysimpleexperimentsthataristotlestheorythataheavierobjectfallsfasterthanalighterobjectisincorrectontheotherhandaristotlerefuteddemocritussclaimthatthemilkywaywasmadeupofthosestarswhichareshadedbytheearthfromthesunsrayspointingoutcorrectlyevenifsuchreasoningwasboundtobedismissedforalongtimethatgivencurrentastronomicaldemonstrationsthatthesizeofthesunisgreaterthanthatoftheearthandthedistanceofthestarsfromtheearthmanytimesgreaterthanthatofthesunthenthesunshinesonallthestarsandtheearthscreensnoneofthem
inplacesaristotlegoestoofarinderivinglawsoftheuniversefromsimpleobservationandoverstretchedreasontodaysscientificmethodassumesthatsuchthinkingwithoutsufficientfactsisineffectiveandthatdiscerningthevalidityofoneshypothesisrequiresfarmorerigorousexperimentationthanthatwhicharistotleusedtosupporthislaws
aristotlealsohadsomescientificblindspotshepositedageocentriccosmologythatwemaydiscerninselectionsofthemetaphysicswhichwaswidelyacceptedupuntilthe16thcenturyfromthe3rdcenturytothe16thcenturythedominantviewheldthattheearthwasthecenteroftheuniversegeocentrism
sincehewasperhapsthephilosophermostrespectedbyeuropeanthinkersduringandaftertherenaissancethesethinkersoftentookaristotleserroneouspositionsasgivenwhichheldbackscienceinthisepochhoweveraristotlesscientificshortcomingsshouldnotmisleadoneintoforgettinghisgreatadvancesinthemanyscientificfieldsforinstancehefoundedlogicasaformalscienceandcreatedfoundationstobiologythatwerenotsupersededfortwomillenniamoreoverheintroducedthefundamentalnotionthatnatureiscomposedofthingsthatchangeandthatstudyingsuchchangescanprovideusefulknowledgeofunderlyingconstants
aristotleproposedafifthelementaetherinadditiontothefourproposedearlierbyempedocles
eachofthefourearthlyelementshasitsnaturalplaceallthatisearthlytendstowardthecenteroftheuniverseiethecenteroftheearthwatertendstowardaspheresurroundingthecenterairtendstowardaspheresurroundingthewaterspherefiretendstowardthelunarsphereinwhichthemoonorbitswhenelementsareoutoftheirnaturalplacetheymovetowardthatplacethisisnaturalmotionmotionrequiringnoextrinsiccausesoforexampleinwaterearthybodiessinkwhileairbubblesriseupinairrainfallsandflamerisesoutsidealltheotherspherestheheavenlyfifthelementmanifestedinthestarsandplanetsmovesintheperfectionofcircles
aristotledefinedmotionastheactualityofapotentialityassuchaquinassuggestedthatthepassagebeunderstoodliterallythatmotioncanindeedbeunderstoodastheactivefulfillmentofapotentialasatransitiontowardapotentiallypossiblestatebecauseactualityandpotentialityarenormallyoppositesinaristotleothercommentatorseithersuggestthatthewordingwhichhascomedowntousiserroneousorthattheadditionoftheassuchtothedefinitioniscriticaltounderstandingit
aristotlesuggestedthatthereasonforanythingcomingaboutcanbeattributedtofourdifferenttypesofsimultaneouslyactivecausalfactors
additionallythingscanbecausesofoneanothercausingeachotherreciprocallyashardworkcausesfitnessandviceversaalthoughnotinthesamewayorfunctiontheoneisasthebeginningofchangetheotherasthegoalthusaristotlefirstsuggestedareciprocalorcircularcausalityasarelationofmutualdependenceorinfluenceofcauseuponeffectmoreoveraristotleindicatedthatthesamethingcanbethecauseofcontraryeffectsitspresenceandabsencemayresultindifferentoutcomessimplyitisthegoalorpurposethatbringsaboutaneventnotnecessarilyamentalgoaltakingourtwodominositrequiressomeonetointentionallyknockthedominosoverastheycannotfallthemselves
aristotlemarkedtwomodesofcausationproperpriorcausationandaccidentalchancecausationallcausesproperandincidentalcanbespokenaspotentialorasactualparticularorgenericthesamelanguagereferstotheeffectsofcausessothatgenericeffectsassignedtogenericcausesparticulareffectstoparticularcausesoperatingcausestoactualeffectsessentiallycausalitydoesnotsuggestatemporalrelationbetweenthecauseandtheeffect
aristotleheldmoreaccuratetheoriesonsomeopticalconceptsthanotherphilosophersofhisdaytheearliestknownwrittenevidenceofacameraobscuracanbefoundinaristotlesdocumentationofsuchadevicein350bcinproblemataaristotlesapparatuscontainedadarkchamberthathadasinglesmallholeoraperturetoallowforsunlighttoenteraristotleusedthedevicetomakeobservationsofthesunandnotedthatnomatterwhatshapetheholewasthesunwouldstillbecorrectlydisplayedasaroundobjectinmoderncamerasthisisanalogoustothediaphragmaristotlealsomadetheobservationthatwhenthedistancebetweentheapertureandthesurfacewiththeimageincreasedtheimagewasmagnified
accordingtoaristotlespontaneityandchancearecausesofsomethingsdistinguishablefromothertypesofcausechanceasanincidentalcauseliesintherealmofaccidentalthingsitisfromwhatisspontaneousbutnotethatwhatisspontaneousdoesnotcomefromchanceforabetterunderstandingofaristotlesconceptionofchanceitmightbebettertothinkofcoincidencesomethingtakesplacebychanceifapersonsetsoutwiththeintentofhavingonethingtakeplacebutwiththeresultofanotherthingnotintendedtakingplaceforexampleapersonseeksdonationsthatpersonmayfindanotherpersonwillingtodonateasubstantialsumhoweverifthepersonseekingthedonationsmetthepersondonatingnotforthepurposeofcollectingdonationsbutforsomeotherpurposearistotlewouldcallthecollectingofthedonationbythatparticulardonatoraresultofchanceitmustbeunusualthatsomethinghappensbychanceinotherwordsifsomethinghappensallormostofthetimewecannotsaythatitisbychance
thereisalsomorespecifickindofchancewhicharistotlenamesluckthatcanonlyapplytohumanbeingssinceitisinthesphereofmoralactionsaccordingtoaristotleluckmustinvolvechoiceandthusdeliberationandonlyhumansarecapableofdeliberationandchoicewhatisnotcapableofactioncannotdoanythingbychance
aristotledefinesmetaphysicsastheknowledgeofimmaterialbeingorofbeinginthehighestdegreeofabstractionhereferstometaphysicsasfirstphilosophyaswellasthetheologicscience
aristotleexaminestheconceptsofsubstanceandessenceousiainhismetaphysicsbookviiandheconcludesthataparticularsubstanceisacombinationofbothmatterandformasheproceedstothebookviiiheconcludesthatthematterofthesubstanceisthesubstratumorthestuffofwhichitiscomposedegthematterofthehousearethebricksstonestimbersetcorwhateverconstitutesthepotentialhousewhiletheformofthesubstanceistheactualhousenamelycoveringforbodiesandchattelsoranyotherdifferentiaseealsopredicablestheformulathatgivesthecomponentsistheaccountofthematterandtheformulathatgivesthedifferentiaistheaccountoftheform
withregardtothechangekinesisanditscausesnowashedefinesinhisphysicsandongenerationandcorruption319b320ahedistinguishesthecomingtobefrom
thecomingtobeisachangewherenothingpersistsofwhichtheresultantisapropertyinthatparticularchangeheintroducestheconceptofpotentialitydynamisandactualityentelecheiainassociationwiththematterandtheform
referringtopotentialitythisiswhatathingiscapableofdoingorbeingacteduponiftheconditionsarerightanditisnotpreventedbysomethingelseforexampletheseedofaplantinthesoilispotentiallydynameiplantandifisnotpreventedbysomethingitwillbecomeaplantpotentiallybeingscaneitheractpoieinorbeacteduponpascheinwhichcanbeeitherinnateorlearnedforexampletheeyespossessthepotentialityofsightinnatebeingacteduponwhilethecapabilityofplayingtheflutecanbepossessedbylearningexerciseacting
actualityisthefulfillmentoftheendofthepotentialitybecausetheendtelosistheprincipleofeverychangeandforthesakeoftheendexistspotentialitythereforeactualityistheendreferringthentoourpreviousexamplewecouldsaythatanactualityiswhenaplantdoesoneoftheactivitiesthatplantsdoinsummarythematterusedtomakeahousehaspotentialitytobeahouseandboththeactivityofbuildingandtheformofthefinalhouseareactualitieswhichisalsoafinalcauseorendthenaristotleproceedsandconcludesthattheactualityispriortopotentialityinformulaintimeandinsubstantiality
withthisdefinitionoftheparticularsubstanceiematterandformaristotletriestosolvetheproblemoftheunityofthebeingsforexamplewhatisitthatmakesamanonesinceaccordingtoplatotherearetwoideasanimalandbipedhowthenismanaunityhoweveraccordingtoaristotlethepotentialbeingmatterandtheactualoneformareoneandthesamething
aristotlespredecessorplatoarguedthatallthingshaveauniversalformwhichcouldbeeitherapropertyorarelationtootherthingswhenwelookatanappleforexampleweseeanappleandwecanalsoanalyzeaformofanappleinthisdistinctionthereisaparticularappleandauniversalformofanapplemoreoverwecanplaceanapplenexttoabooksothatwecanspeakofboththebookandappleasbeingnexttoeachother
platoarguedthattherearesomeuniversalformsthatarenotapartofparticularthingsforexampleitispossiblethatthereisnoparticulargoodinexistencebutgoodisstillaproperuniversalformbertrandrussellisacontemporaryphilosopherwhoagreedwithplatoontheexistenceofuninstantiateduniversals
aristotledisagreedwithplatoonthispointarguingthatalluniversalsareinstantiatedaristotlearguedthattherearenouniversalsthatareunattachedtoexistingthingsaccordingtoaristotleifauniversalexistseitherasaparticularorarelationthentheremusthavebeenmustbecurrentlyormustbeinthefuturesomethingonwhichtheuniversalcanbepredicatedconsequentlyaccordingtoaristotleifitisnotthecasethatsomeuniversalcanbepredicatedtoanobjectthatexistsatsomeperiodoftimethenitdoesnotexist
inadditionaristotledisagreedwithplatoaboutthelocationofuniversalsasplatospokeoftheworldoftheformsalocationwherealluniversalformssubsistaristotlemaintainedthatuniversalsexistwithineachthingonwhicheachuniversalispredicatedsoaccordingtoaristotletheformofappleexistswithineachappleratherthanintheworldoftheforms
inaristoteliansciencemostespeciallyinbiologythingshesawhimselfhavestoodthetestoftimebetterthanhisretellingofthereportsofotherswhichcontainerrorandsuperstitionhedissectedanimalsbutnothumanshisideasonhowthehumanbodyworkshavebeenalmostentirelysuperseded
aristotleistheearliestnaturalhistorianwhoseworkhassurvivedinsomedetailaristotlecertainlydidresearchonthenaturalhistoryoflesbosandthesurroundingseasandneighbouringareastheworksthatreflectthisresearchsuchashistoryofanimalsgenerationofanimalsandpartsofanimalscontainsomeobservationsandinterpretationsalongwithsundrymythsandmistakesthemoststrikingpassagesareaboutthesealifevisiblefromobservationonlesbosandavailablefromthecatchesoffishermenhisobservationsoncatfishelectricfishtorpedoandanglerfisharedetailedasishiswritingoncephalopodsnamelyoctopussepiacuttlefishandthepapernautilusargonautaargohisdescriptionofthehectocotylarmwasabouttwothousandyearsaheadofitstimeandwidelydisbelieveduntilitsrediscoveryinthe19thcenturyheseparatedtheaquaticmammalsfromfishandknewthatsharksandrayswerepartofthegrouphecalledselachēselachians
anothergoodexampleofhismethodscomesfromthegenerationofanimalsinwhicharistotledescribesbreakingopenfertilizedchickeneggsatintervalstoobservewhenvisibleorgansweregenerated
hegaveaccuratedescriptionsofruminantsfourchamberedforestomachsandoftheovoviviparousembryologicaldevelopmentofthehoundsharkmustelusmustelus
aristotlesclassificationoflivingthingscontainssomeelementswhichstillexistedinthe19thcenturywhatthemodernzoologistwouldcallvertebratesandinvertebratesaristotlecalledanimalswithbloodandanimalswithoutbloodhewasnottoknowthatcomplexinvertebratesdomakeuseofhaemoglobinbutofadifferentkindfromvertebratesanimalswithbloodweredividedintolivebearinghumansandmammalsandeggbearingbirdsandfishinvertebratesanimalswithoutbloodareinsectscrustaceadividedintononshelledcephalopodsandshelledandtestaceamolluscsinsomerespectsthisincompleteclassificationisbetterthanthatoflinnaeuswhocrowdedtheinvertebratatogetherintotwogroupsinsectaandvermesworms
forcharlessingernothingismoreremarkablethan1effortsto2therelationshipsoflivingthingsasascalanaturae
aristotlebelievedthatintellectualpurposesiefinalcausesguidedallnaturalprocessessuchateleologicalviewgavearistotlecausetojustifyhisobserveddataasanexpressionofformaldesignnotingthatnoanimalhasatthesametimebothtusksandhornsandasinglehoovedanimalwithtwohornsihaveneverseenaristotlesuggestedthatnaturegivingnoanimalbothhornsandtuskswasstavingoffvanityandgivingcreaturesfacultiesonlytosuchadegreeastheyarenecessarynotingthatruminantshadmultiplestomachsandweakteethhesupposedthefirstwastocompensateforthelatterwithnaturetryingtopreserveatypeofbalance
inasimilarfashionaristotlebelievedthatcreatureswerearrangedinagradedscaleofperfectionrisingfromplantsonuptomanthescalanaturaeorgreatchainofbeinghissystemhadelevengradesarrangedaccordingtothedegreetowhichtheyareinfectedwithpotentialityexpressedintheirformatbirththehighestanimalslaidwarmandwetcreaturesalivethelowestboretheirscolddryandinthickeggs
aristotlealsoheldthatthelevelofacreaturesperfectionwasreflectedinitsformbutnotpreordainedbythatformideaslikethisandhisideasaboutsoulsarenotregardedasscienceatallinmoderntimes
heplacedemphasisonthetypesofsoulanorganismpossessedassertingthatplantspossessavegetativesoulresponsibleforreproductionandgrowthanimalsavegetativeandasensitivesoulresponsibleformobilityandsensationandhumansavegetativeasensitiveandarationalsoulcapableofthoughtandreflection
aristotleincontrasttoearlierphilosophersbutinaccordancewiththeegyptiansplacedtherationalsoulintheheartratherthanthebrainnotableisaristotlesdivisionofsensationandthoughtwhichgenerallywentagainstpreviousphilosopherswiththeexceptionofalcmaeon
aristotlessuccessoratthelyceumtheophrastuswroteaseriesofbooksonbotanythehistoryofplantswhichsurvivedasthemostimportantcontributionofantiquitytobotanyevenintothemiddleagesmanyoftheophrastusnamessurviveintomoderntimessuchascarposforfruitandpericarpionforseedvessel
ratherthanfocusonformalcausesasaristotledidtheophrastussuggestedamechanisticschemedrawinganalogiesbetweennaturalandartificialprocessesandrelyingonaristotlesconceptoftheefficientcausetheophrastusalsorecognizedtheroleofsexinthereproductionofsomehigherplantsthoughthislastdiscoverywaslostinlaterages
aftertheophrastusthelyceumfailedtoproduceanyoriginalworkthoughinterestinaristotlesideassurvivedtheyweregenerallytakenunquestioninglyitisnotuntiltheageofalexandriaundertheptolemiesthatadvancesinbiologycanbeagainfound
thefirstmedicalteacheratalexandriaherophilusofchalcedoncorrectedaristotleplacingintelligenceinthebrainandconnectedthenervoussystemtomotionandsensationherophilusalsodistinguishedbetweenveinsandarteriesnotingthatthelatterpulsewhiletheformerdonotthoughafewancientatomistssuchaslucretiuschallengedtheteleologicalviewpointofaristotelianideasaboutlifeteleologyandaftertheriseofchristianitynaturaltheologywouldremaincentraltobiologicalthoughtessentiallyuntilthe18thand19thcenturiesernstmayrclaimedthattherewasnothingofanyrealconsequenceinbiologyafterlucretiusandgalenuntiltherenaissancearistotlesideasofnaturalhistoryandmedicinesurvivedbuttheyweregenerallytakenunquestioningly
aristotlespsychologygiveninhistreatiseonthesoulperipsycheoftenknownbyitslatintitledeanimapositsthreesoulspsychesinhumansthevegetativesoulthesensitivesoulandtherationalsoulhumanssharethevegetativesoulwithalllivingthingsandthesensitivesoulwithallanimalsbutonlyhumansofallbeingsintheworldhavearationalsoul
foraristotlethesoulpsychewasasimplerconceptthanitisforustodaybysoulhesimplymeanttheformofthelivingbeingsinceallbeingsarecompositesofformandmattertheformoflivingbeingsisthatwhichendowsthemwithwhatisspecifictolivingbeingsegtheabilitytoinitiatemovementorinthecaseofplantsgrowthandchemicaltransformationswhicharistotleconsiderstypesofmovement
aristotleconsideredethicstobeapracticalratherthantheoreticalstudyieoneaimedatdoinggoodratherthanknowingforitsownsakehewroteseveraltreatisesonethicsincludingmostnotablythenicomacheanethics
aristotletaughtthatvirtuehastodowiththeproperfunctionergonofathinganeyeisonlyagoodeyeinsomuchasitcanseebecausetheproperfunctionofaneyeissightaristotlereasonedthathumansmusthaveafunctionspecifictohumansandthatthisfunctionmustbeanactivityofthepsuchēnormallytranslatedassoulinaccordancewithreasonlogosaristotleidentifiedsuchanoptimumactivityofthesoulastheaimofallhumandeliberateactioneudaimoniagenerallytranslatedashappinessorsometimeswellbeingtohavethepotentialofeverbeinghappyinthiswaynecessarilyrequiresagoodcharacterēthikēaretēoftentranslatedasmoralorethicalvirtueorexcellence
aristotletaughtthattoachieveavirtuousandpotentiallyhappycharacterrequiresafirststageofhavingthefortunetobehabituatednotdeliberatelybutbyteachersandexperienceleadingtoalaterstageinwhichoneconsciouslychoosestodothebestthingswhenthebestpeoplecometolivelifethiswaytheirpracticalwisdomphronēsisandtheirintellectnouscandevelopwitheachothertowardsthehighestpossiblehumanvirtuethewisdomofanaccomplishedtheoreticalorspeculativethinkerorinotherwordsaphilosopher
inadditiontohisworksonethicswhichaddresstheindividualaristotleaddressedthecityinhisworktitledpoliticsaristotleconsideredthecitytobeanaturalcommunitymoreoverheconsideredthecitytobepriorinimportancetothefamilywhichinturnispriortotheindividualforthewholemustofnecessitybepriortotheparthealsofamouslystatedthatmanisbynatureapoliticalanimalaristotleconceivedofpoliticsasbeinglikeanorganismratherthanlikeamachineandasacollectionofpartsnoneofwhichcanexistwithouttheothersaristotlesconceptionofthecityisorganicandheisconsideredoneofthefirsttoconceiveofthecityinthismanner
thecommonmodernunderstandingofapoliticalcommunityasamodernstateisquitedifferenttoaristotlesunderstandingalthoughhewasawareoftheexistenceandpotentialoflargerempiresthenaturalcommunityaccordingtoaristotlewasthecitypoliswhichfunctionsasapoliticalcommunityorpartnershipkoinōniatheaimofthecityisnotjusttoavoidinjusticeorforeconomicstabilitybutrathertoallowatleastsomecitizensthepossibilitytoliveagoodlifeandtoperformbeautifulactsthepoliticalpartnershipmustberegardedthereforeasbeingforthesakeofnobleactionsnotforthesakeoflivingtogetherthisisdistinguishedfrommodernapproachesbeginningwithsocialcontracttheoryaccordingtowhichindividualsleavethestateofnaturebecauseoffearofviolentdeathoritsinconveniences
aristotleconsideredepicpoetrytragedycomedydithyrambicpoetryandmusictobeimitativeeachvaryinginimitationbymediumobjectandmannerforexamplemusicimitateswiththemediaofrhythmandharmonywhereasdanceimitateswithrhythmaloneandpoetrywithlanguagetheformsalsodifferintheirobjectofimitationcomedyforinstanceisadramaticimitationofmenworsethanaveragewhereastragedyimitatesmenslightlybetterthanaveragelastlytheformsdifferintheirmannerofimitationthroughnarrativeorcharacterthroughchangeornochangeandthroughdramaornodramaaristotlebelievedthatimitationisnaturaltomankindandconstitutesoneofmankindsadvantagesoveranimals
whileitisbelievedthataristotlespoeticscomprisedtwobooksoneoncomedyandoneontragedyonlytheportionthatfocusesontragedyhassurvivedaristotletaughtthattragedyiscomposedofsixelementsplotstructurecharacterstylespectacleandlyricpoetrythecharactersinatragedyaremerelyameansofdrivingthestoryandtheplotnotthecharactersisthechieffocusoftragedytragedyistheimitationofactionarousingpityandfearandismeanttoeffectthecatharsisofthosesameemotionsaristotleconcludespoeticswithadiscussiononwhichifeitherissuperiorepicortragicmimesishesuggeststhatbecausetragedypossessesalltheattributesofanepicpossiblypossessesadditionalattributessuchasspectacleandmusicismoreunifiedandachievestheaimofitsmimesisinshorterscopeitcanbeconsideredsuperiortoepic
aristotlewasakeensystematiccollectorofriddlesfolkloreandproverbsheandhisschoolhadaspecialinterestintheriddlesofthedelphicoracleandstudiedthefablesofaesop
aristotlesanalysisofprocreationdescribesanactiveensoulingmasculineelementbringinglifetoaninertpassivefemaleelementonthesegroundsaristotleisconsideredbysomefeministcriticstohavebeenamisogynist
modernscholarshiprevealsthataristotleslostworksstrayconsiderablyincharacterizationfromthesurvivingaristoteliancorpuswhereasthelostworksappeartohavebeenoriginallywrittenwithanintentforsubsequentpublicationthesurvivingworksdonotappeartohavebeensoratherthesurvivingworksmostlyresemblelecturenotesunintendedforpublicationtheauthenticityofaportionofthesurvivingworksasoriginallyaristotelianisalsotodayheldsuspectwithsomebooksduplicatingorsummarizingeachothertheauthorshipofonebookquestionedandanotherbookconsideredtobeunlikelyaristotlesatall
someoftheindividualworkswithinthecorpusincludingtheconstitutionofathensareregardedbymostscholarsasproductsofaristotlesschoolperhapscompiledunderhisdirectionorsupervisionotherssuchasoncolorsmayhavebeenproducedbyaristotlessuccessorsatthelyceumegtheophrastusandstratonstillothersacquiredaristotlesnamethroughsimilaritiesindoctrineorcontentsuchasthedeplantispossiblybynicolausofdamascusotherworksinthecorpusincludemedievalpalmistriesandastrologicalandmagicaltextswhoseconnectionstoaristotlearepurelyfancifulandselfpromotional
accordingtoadistinctionthatoriginateswitharistotlehimselfhiswritingsaredivisibleintotwogroupstheexotericandtheesotericmostscholarshaveunderstoodthisasadistinctionbetweenworksaristotleintendedforthepublicexotericandthemoretechnicalworksintendedforusewithintheschoolesotericmodernscholarscommonlyassumetheselattertobearistotlesownunpolishedlecturenotesorinsomecasespossiblenotesbyhisstudentshoweveroneclassicscholaroffersanalternativeinterpretationthe5thcenturyneoplatonistammoniushermiaewritesthataristotleswritingstyleisdeliberatelyobscurantistsothatgoodpeoplemayforthatreasonstretchtheirmindevenmorewhereasemptymindsthatarelostthroughcarelessnesswillbeputtoflightbytheobscuritywhentheyencountersentenceslikethese
anothercommonassumptionisthatnoneoftheexotericworksisextantthatallofaristotlesextantwritingsareoftheesoterickindcurrentknowledgeofwhatexactlytheexotericwritingswerelikeisscantanddubiousthoughmanyofthemmayhavebeenindialogueformfragmentsofsomeofaristotlesdialogueshavesurvivedperhapsitistothesethatciceroreferswhenhecharacterizedaristotleswritingstyleasariverofgold
onemajorquestioninthehistoryofaristotlesworksthenishowweretheexotericwritingsalllostandhowdidtheoneswenowpossesscometousthestoryoftheoriginalmanuscriptsoftheesoterictreatisesisdescribedbystraboinhisgeographyandplutarchinhisparallellivesthemanuscriptswereleftfromaristotletohissuccessortheophrastuswhointurnwilledthemtoneleusofscepsisneleussupposedlytookthewritingsfromathenstoscepsiswherehisheirsletthemlanguishinacellaruntilthe1stcenturybcwhenapelliconofteosdiscoveredandpurchasedthemanuscriptsbringingthembacktoathensaccordingtothestoryapellicontriedtorepairsomeofthedamagethatwasdoneduringthemanuscriptsstayinthebasementintroducinganumberoferrorsintothetextwhenluciuscorneliussullaoccupiedathensin86bchecarriedoffthelibraryofapellicontoromewheretheywerefirstpublishedin60bcbythegrammariantyrannionofamisusandthenbyphilosopherandronicusofrhodes
carneslordattributesthepopularbeliefinthisstorytothefactthatitprovidesthemostplausibleexplanationfortherapideclipseoftheperipateticschoolafterthemiddleofthethirdcenturyandfortheabsenceofwidespreadknowledgeofthespecializedtreatisesofaristotlethroughoutthehellenisticperiodaswellasforthesuddenreappearanceofaflourishingaristotelianismduringthefirstcenturybc
astheinfluenceofthefalsafagrewinthewestinpartduetogerardofcremonastranslationsandthespreadofaverroismthedemandforaristotlesworksgrewwilliamofmoerbeketranslatedanumberofthemintolatinwhenthomasaquinaswrotehistheologyworkingfrommoerbekestranslationsthedemandforaristotleswritingsgrewandthegreekmanuscriptsreturnedtotheweststimulatingarevivalofaristotelianismineuropetothepointwhererenaissancephilosophycouldbeequatedwitharistotelianism
theimmediateinfluenceofaristotlesworkwasfeltasthelyceumgrewintotheperipateticschoolaristotlesnotablestudentsincludedaristoxenusdicaearchusdemetriusofphalerumeudemosofrhodesharpalushephaestionmenomnasonofphocisnicomachusandtheophrastusaristotlesinfluenceoveralexanderthegreatisseeninthelattersbringingwithhimonhisexpeditionahostofzoologistsbotanistsandresearchershehadalsolearnedagreatdealaboutpersiancustomsandtraditionsfromhisteacheralthoughhisrespectforaristotlewasdiminishedashistravelsmadeitclearthatmuchofaristotlesgeographywasclearlywrongwhentheoldphilosopherreleasedhisworkstothepublicalexandercomplainedthouhastnotdonewelltopublishthyacroamaticdoctrinesforinwhatshallisurpassothermenifthosedoctrineswhereinihavebeentrainedaretobeallmenscommonproperty
aristotleisreferredtoasthephilosopherbyscholasticthinkerssuchasthomasaquinasseesummatheologicapartiquestion3etcthesethinkersblendedaristotelianphilosophywithchristianitybringingthethoughtofancientgreeceintothemiddleagesitrequiredarepudiationofsomearistotelianprinciplesforthesciencesandtheartstofreethemselvesforthediscoveryofmodernscientificlawsandempiricalmethodsthemedievalenglishpoetchaucerdescribeshisstudentasbeinghappybyhavingathisbeddesheedtwentybookescladinblakorreedofaristotleandhisphilosophietheitalianpoetdantesaysofaristotleinthefirstcirclesofhellisawthemasterthereofthosewhoknowamidthephilosophicfamilybyalladmiredandbyallreverencedthereplatotooisawandsocrateswhostoodbesidehimcloserthantherest
aristotlewasoneofthemostreveredwesternthinkersinearlyislamictheologymostofthestillextantworksofaristotleaswellasagreatnumberoftheoriginalgreekcommentariesweretranslatedintoarabicandstudiedbymuslimpolymathsphilosophersscientistsandscholarswhoseknowledgeofaristotlethusstretchedfarbeyondthatofearlymedievalchristiancommentatorsorientalinterpretersofaristotlesworkfollowedthegreekinterpreterswithoutchronologicalgapandthemedievalwesterntraditionwasinfluencedequallybychristianthinkerssuchasthomasaquinasandmuslimtheologianssuchasaverroesavicennaandalpharabiusallofwhomwroteonaristotleingreatdepthandfrequentlycomparedtheteachingsofaristotlewiththoseoftheprophetsofislamalkindusconsideredaristotleastheoutstandinganduniquerepresentativeofphilosophyandaverroesspokeofaristotleastheexemplarforallfuturephilosopherslatermuslimphilosophersliketheirchristiancounterpartsspokeofaristotleasthephilosopherandsomedescribedhimasthefirstteacher
inaccordancewiththegreektheoriststhemuslimsconsideredaristotletobeadogmaticphilosophertheauthorofaclosedsystemandbelievedthataristotlesharedwithplatoessentialtenetsofthoughtsomewentsofarastocreditaristotlehimselfwithneoplatonicmetaphysicalideas
thegermanphilosopherfriedrichnietzschehasbeensaidtohavetakennearlyallofhispoliticalphilosophyfromaristotlehoweverimplausiblethisisitiscertainlythecasethataristotlesrigidseparationofactionfromproductionandhisjustificationofthesubservienceofslavesandotherstothevirtueorareteofafewjustifiedtheidealofaristocracyitismartinheideggernotnietzschewhoelaboratedanewinterpretationofaristotleintendedtowarranthisdeconstructionofscholasticandphilosophicaltraditionaynrandaccreditedaristotleasthegreatestphilosopherinhistoryandcitedhimasamajorinfluenceonherthinkingmorerecentlyalasdairmacintyrehasattemptedtoreformwhathecallsthearistoteliantraditioninawaythatisantielitistandcapableofdisputingtheclaimsofbothliberalsandnietzscheans
theworksofaristotlethathavesurvivedfromantiquitythroughmedievalmanuscripttransmissionarecollectedinthecorpusaristotelicumthesetextsasopposedtoaristotleslostworksaretechnicalphilosophicaltreatisesfromwithinaristotlesschoolreferencetothemismadeaccordingtotheorganizationofimmanuelbekkersroyalprussianacademyeditionaristotelisoperaediditacademiaregiaborussicaberlin18311870whichinturnisbasedonancientclassificationsoftheseworks
thesecondaryliteratureonaristotleisvastthefollowingreferencesareonlyasmallselection
collectionsofworks
other
gershwincomposedthepieceoncommissionfromthenewyorkphilharmonichealsodidtheorchestrationhedidnotorchestratehismusicalsgershwinscoredanamericaninparisforthestandardinstrumentsofthesymphonyorchestrapluscelestasaxophoneandautomobilehornsgershwinbroughtbacksomeparisiantaxihornsforthenewyorkpremiereofthecompositionwhichtookplaceondecember131928incarnegiehallwithwalterdamroschconductingthenewyorkphilharmonic
gershwincollaboratedontheoriginalprogramnoteswiththecriticandcomposerdeemstaylornotingthatmypurposehereistoportraytheimpressionofanamericanvisitorinparisashestrollsaboutthecityandlistenstovariousstreetnoisesandabsorbsthefrenchatmospherewhenthetonepoemmovesintothebluesouramericanfriendhassuccumbedtoaspasmofhomesicknessbutnostalgiaisnotafataldiseasetheamericanvisitoronceagainisanalertspectatorofparisianlifeandthestreetnoisesandfrenchatmospherearetriumphant
mauriceravelmetgershwininnewyorkduringravelstouroftheunitedstatesinthatmeetinggershwinaskedraveltobehisteachertowhichravelrespondedthatitwasbettertobeafirstrategershwinthanitwastobeasecondrateravelinsteadravelrecommendedthatgershwinseenadiaboulangerinparisitwasbecauseofravelshighpraiseofgershwininanintroductorylettertoboulangerthatcausedgershwintoseriouslyconsidertakingtimetostudyabroadinparis
gershwinarrivedinparisinmarch1928parisatthistimehostedmanyexpatriatewritersezrapoundwilliambutleryeatsernesthemingwayandartistpablopicassogershwinmetwithboulangerandatherrequestheplayedtenminutesofhismusicboulangerrepliedthatshehadnothingtoteachhimthisdidnotsetgershwinbackashisrealintentabroadwastocompleteanewworkbasedonparisandperhapsasecondrhapsodyforpianoandorchestra
gershwinbasedanamericaninparisonamelodicfragmentcalledveryparisiennewrittenin1926onhisfirstvisittoparisasagifttohishostsrobertandmabelschirmerhedescribedthepieceasarhapsodicballetbecauseitwaswrittenfreelyandismoremodernthanhispreviousworksgershwinexplainedinmusicalamericamypurposehereistoportraytheimpressionsofanamericanvisitorinparisashestrollsaboutthecitylistenstothevariousstreetnoisesandabsorbsthefrenchatmosphere
thepieceisstructuredintofivesectionswhichculminateinalooseabaformatgershwinsfirstaepisodeintroducesthetwomainwalkingthemesintheallegrettograziosoanddevelopsathirdthemeinthesubitoconbriothestyleofthisasectioniswritteninthetypicalfrenchstyleofcomposersclaudedebussyandlessixthisasectionfeaturedduplemetersingsongrhythmsanddiatonicmelodieswiththesoundsofoboeenglishhornandtaxihornsthebsectionsandantemaconritmodecisointroducestheamericanbluesandspasmsofhomesicknesstheallegrothatfollowscontinuestoexpresshomesicknessinafastertwelvebarbluesinthebsectiongershwinusescommontimesyncopatedrhythmsandbluesymelodieswiththesoundsoftrumpetsaxophoneandsnaredrummoderatocongraziaisthelastasectionthatreturnstothethemessetinaafterrecapitulatingthewalkingthemesgershwinoverlaystheslowbluesthemefromsectionbinthefinalgrandioso
anamericaninparisisscoredfor3flutes3rddoublingonpiccolo2oboesenglishhorn2clarinetsinbflatbassclarinetinbflat2bassoons4hornsinf3trumpetsinbflat3trombonestubatimpanisnaredrumbassdrumtrianglewoodblockcymbalslowandhightomtomsxylophoneglockenspielcelesta4taxihornsresemblingthepitchesabcanddaltosaxophonesopranosaxophonetenorsaxophonesopranosaxophonealtosaxophonebaritonesaxophonesopranosaxophonealtosaxophoneandstrings
therevisededitionbyfcampbellwatsoncallsforthreesaxophonesaltotenorandbaritoneinthisarrangementthesopranoandaltodoublingshavebeenrewrittentoavoidchanginginstruments
gershwindidnotparticularlylikewalterdamroschsinterpretationattheworldpremiereofanamericaninparishestatedthatdamroschssluggishdraggingtempocausedhimtowalkoutofthehallduringamatineeperformanceofthisworktheaudienceaccordingtoedwardcushingrespondedwithademonstrationofenthusiasmimpressivelygenuineincontrasttotheconventionalapplausewhichnewmusicgoodandbadordinarilyarousescriticsbelievedthatanamericaninpariswasbettercraftedthanhislukewarmconcertoinfsomedidnotthinkitbelongedinaprogramwithclassicalcomposerscésarfranckrichardwagnerorguillaumelekeuonitspremieregershwinrespondedtothecriticsitsnotabeethovensymphonyyouknowitsahumorouspiecenothingsolemnaboutititsnotintendedtodrawtearsifitpleasessymphonyaudiencesasalightjollypieceaseriesofimpressionsmusicallyexpresseditsucceeds
anamericaninparishasbeenfrequentlyrecordedovertheyearstheveryfirstrecordingwasmadeforrcavictorin1929withnathanielshilkretconductingthevictorsymphonyorchestradrawnfrommembersofthephiladelphiaorchestragershwinwasonhandtosupervisetherecordinghowevershilkretwasreportedtobeinchargeandeventuallyaskedthecomposertoleavetherecordingstudiothenalittlelatershilkretdiscoveredtherewasnoonetoplaythebriefcelestasoloduringtheslowsectionsohehastilyaskedgershwinifhemightplaythesologershwinsaidhecouldandsohebrieflyparticipatedintheactualrecordingtheradiobroadcastoftheseptember81937hollywoodbowlgeorgegershwinmemorialconcertinwhichanamericaninparisalsoconductedbyshilkretwassecondontheprogramwasrecordedandwasreleasedin1998inatwocdsetarthurfiedlerandthebostonpopsorchestrarecordedtheworkforrcavictorincludingoneofthefirststereorecordingsofthemusicin1945arturotoscaniniandthenbcsymphonyorchestrarecordedthemusicincarnegiehalloneofthefewcommercialrecordingstoscaninimadeofmusicbyanamericancomposertheseattlesymphonyalsorecordedaversioninthe1980sofgershwinsoriginalscorebeforehemadenumerouseditsresultinginthescoreaswehearittoday
in1951mgmreleasedthemusicalanamericaninparisfeaturinggenekellyandlesliecaronwinningthe1951bestpictureoscarandnumerousotherawardsthefilmwasdirectedbyvincenteminnellifeaturedmanytunesofgershwinandconcludedwithanextensiveelaboratedancesequencebuiltaroundtheanamericaninparissymphonicpoemarrangedforthefilmbyjohnnygreencosting500000
apartofthesymphoniccompositionisalsofeaturedinasgoodasitgetsreleasedin1997
rimlerwaltergeorgegershwinanintimateportraiturbanauniversityofillinoispress20092933print
pollackhowardgeorgegershwinhislifeandworkberkeleyuniversityofcaliforniapress200643142print
theacademyawardsaretheoldestawardsceremonyforachievementsinmotionpicturestheacademyawardforbestartdirectionrecognizesachievementinartdirectiononafilmthefilmsbelowarelistedwiththeirproductionyearsotheoscar2000forbestartdirectionwenttoafilmfrom1999inthelistsbelowthewinneroftheawardforeachyearisshownfirstfollowedbytheothernominees
thisawardwasoriginallyforinteriordecoration
withtheawardsfor1940theawardwasdividedintoseparateawardsforblackandwhiteandcolorfilms
artdirection
anacademyawardalsoknownastheoscarisanaccoladebestowedbytheamericanacademyofmotionpictureartsandsciencesampastorecognizeexcellenceofprofessionalsinthefilmindustryincludingdirectorsactorsandwriterstheformalceremonyatwhichtheawardsarepresentedisoneofthemostprominentawardceremoniesintheworldandistelevisedliveinmorethan200countriesannuallyitisalsotheoldestawardceremonyinthemediaitsequivalentsthegrammyawardsformusicemmyawardsfortelevisionandtonyawardsfortheatrearemodeledaftertheacademy
theampaswasoriginallyconceivedbymetrogoldwynmayerstudiobosslouisbmayerasaprofessionalhonoraryorganizationtohelpimprovethefilmindustrysimageandhelpmediatelabordisputestheoscaritselfwaslaterinitiatedbytheacademyasanawardofmeritfordistinctiveachievementintheindustry
thefirstacademyawardsceremonywasheldonmay161929atthehotelrooseveltinhollywoodtohonoroutstandingfilmachievementsofthe19271928filmseasonthemostrecentceremonyhonoringfilmsin2010washeldathollywoodskodaktheatreonfebruary272011
thefirstawardswerepresentedonmay161929ataprivatebrunchatthehollywoodroosevelthotelwithanaudienceofabout270peoplethepostacademyawardspartywasheldatthemayfairhotelthecostofguestticketsforthatnightsceremonywas5fifteenstatuetteswereawardedhonoringartistsdirectorsandotherpersonalitiesofthefilmmakingindustryofthetimefortheirworksduringthe19271928period
winnershadbeenannouncedthreemonthsearlieroftheirtriumphshoweverthatwaschangedinthesecondceremonyoftheacademyawardsin1930sincethenandduringthefirstdecadetheresultsweregiventonewspapersforpublicationat11pmonthenightoftheawardsthismethodwasuseduntilthelosangelestimesannouncedthewinnersbeforetheceremonybeganasaresulttheacademyhasusedasealedenvelopetorevealthenameofthewinnerssince1941
forthefirstsixceremoniestheeligibilityperiodspannedtwocalendaryearsforexamplethe2ndacademyawardspresentedonapril31930recognizedfilmsthatwerereleasedbetweenaugust11928andjuly311929startingwiththe7thacademyawardsheldin1935theperiodofeligibilitybecamethefullpreviouscalendaryearfromjanuary1todecember31
thefirstbestactorawardedwasemiljanningsforhisperformancesinthelastcommandandthewayofallfleshhehadtoreturntoeuropebeforetheceremonysotheacademyagreedtogivehimtheprizeearlierthismadehimthefirstacademyawardwinnerinhistorythehonoredprofessionalswereawardedforalltheworkdoneinacertaincategoryforthequalifyingperiodforexampleemiljanningsreceivedtheawardfortwomoviesinwhichhestarredduringthatperiodsincethefourthceremonythesystemchangedandtheprofessionalswerehonoredforaspecificperformanceinasinglefilmatotalof2789oscarshavebeengivenfor1825awardsatotalof302actorshavewonoscarsincompetitiveactingcategoriesorbeenawardedhonoraryorjuvenileawards
the1939filmbeaugesteistheonlymoviethatfeaturesasmanyasfouracademyawardwinnersforbestactorinaleadingrolegarycooperraymillandsusanhaywardbroderickcrawfordpriortoanyoftheactorsreceivingthebestactoraward
atthe29thceremonyheldonmarch271957thebestforeignlanguagefilmcategorywasintroduceduntilthenforeignlanguagefilmswerehonoredwiththespecialachievementaward
althoughtherearesevenothertypesofawardspresentedbytheacademytheirvinggthalbergmemorialawardthejeanhersholthumanitarianawardthegordonesawyerawardthescientificandengineeringawardthetechnicalachievementawardthejohnabonnermedalofcommendationandthestudentacademyawardthebestknownoneistheacademyawardofmeritmorepopularlyknownastheoscarstatuettemadeofgoldplatedbritanniumonablackmetalbaseitis135in34cmtallweighs85lb385kganddepictsaknightrenderedinartdecostyleholdingacrusadersswordstandingonareeloffilmwithfivespokesthefivespokeseachrepresenttheoriginalbranchesoftheacademyactorswritersdirectorsproducersandtechnicians
mgmsartdirectorcedricgibbonsoneoftheoriginalacademymemberssupervisedthedesignoftheawardtrophybyprintingthedesignonascrollinneedofamodelforhisstatuettegibbonswasintroducedbyhisthenwifedoloresdelríotomexicanfilmdirectorandactoremilioelindiofernándezreluctantatfirstfernándezwasfinallyconvincedtoposenudetocreatewhattodayisknownastheoscarthensculptorgeorgestanleywhoalsodidthemusefountainatthehollywoodbowlsculptedgibbonssdesigninclayandsachinsmithcastthestatuettein925percenttinand75percentcopperandthengoldplatedittheonlyadditiontotheoscarsinceitwascreatedisaminorstreamliningofthebasetheoriginaloscarmoldwascastin1928atthecwshumwayampsonsfoundryinbataviaillinoiswhichalsocontributedtocastingthemoldsforthevincelombarditrophyandemmyawardsstatuettessince1983approximately50oscarsaremadeeachyearinchicagobyillinoismanufacturerrsowensampcompany
insupportoftheamericaneffortinworldwariithestatuettesweremadeofplasterandweretradedinforgoldonesafterthewarhadended
since1950thestatuetteshavebeenlegallyencumberedbytherequirementthatneitherwinnersnortheirheirsmaysellthestatuetteswithoutfirstofferingtosellthembacktotheacademyforus1ifawinnerrefusestoagreetothisstipulationthentheacademykeepsthestatuetteacademyawardsnotprotectedbythisagreementhavebeensoldinpublicauctionsandprivatedealsforsixfiguresums
whiletheoscarisundertheownershipoftherecipientitisessentiallynotontheopenmarket
since2004academyawardnominationresultshavebeenannouncedtothepublicinlatejanuarypriorto2004nominationresultswereannouncedpubliclyinearlyfebruary
theacademyofmotionpictureartsandsciencesampasaprofessionalhonoraryorganizationmaintainsavotingmembershipof5835
academymembershipisdividedintodifferentbrancheswitheachrepresentingadifferentdisciplineinfilmproductionactorsconstitutethelargestvotingblocnumbering1311members22percentoftheacademyscompositionvoteshavebeencertifiedbytheauditingfirmpricewaterhousecoopersanditspredecessorpricewaterhouseforthepast73annualawardsceremonies
allampasmembersmustbeinvitedtojoinbytheboardofgovernorsonbehalfofacademybranchexecutivecommitteesmembershipeligibilitymaybeachievedbyacompetitivenominationoramembermaysubmitanamebasedonothersignificantcontributiontothefieldofmotionpictures
newmembershipproposalsareconsideredannuallytheacademydoesnotpubliclydiscloseitsmembershipalthoughasrecentlyas2007pressreleaseshaveannouncedthenamesofthosewhohavebeeninvitedtojointhe2007releasealsostatedthatithasjustunder6000votingmemberswhilethemembershiphadbeengrowingstricterpolicieshavekeptitssizesteadysincethen
currentlyaccordingtorules2and3oftheofficialacademyawardsrulesafilmmustopeninthepreviouscalendaryearfrommidnightatthestartofjanuary1tomidnightattheendofdecember31inlosangelescountycaliforniatoqualifyexceptforthebestforeignlanguagefilm
rule2statesthatafilmmustbefeaturelengthdefinedasaminimumof40minutesexceptforshortsubjectawardsanditmustexisteitherona35mmor70mmfilmprintorin24framesor48framesprogressivescandigitalcinemaformatwithnativeresolutionnotlessthan1280x720
producersmustsubmitanofficialscreencreditsonlineformbeforethedeadlineincaseitisnotsubmittedbythedefineddeadlinethefilmwillbeineligibleforacademyawardsinanyyeartheformincludestheproductioncreditsforallrelatedcategoriestheneachformischeckedandputinareminderlistofeligiblereleases
inlatedecemberballotsandcopiesofthereminderlistofeligiblereleasesaremailedtoaround6000activemembersformostcategoriesmembersfromeachofthebranchesvotetodeterminethenomineesonlyintheirrespectivecategoriesieonlydirectorsvotefordirectorswritersforwritersactorsforactorsetctherearesomeexceptionsthoughinthecaseofcertaincategorieslikeforeignfilmdocumentaryandanimatedfeaturefilminwhichmoviesareselectedbyspecialscreeningcommitteesmadeupofmembersfromallbranchesinthespecialcaseofbestpictureallvotingmembersareeligibletoselectthenomineesforthatcategoryforeignfilmsmustincludeenglishsubtitlesandeachcountrycanonlysubmitonefilmperyear
themembersofthevariousbranchesnominatethoseintheirrespectivefieldswhileallmembersmaysubmitnomineesforbestpicturethewinnersarethendeterminedbyasecondroundofvotinginwhichallmembersarethenallowedtovoteinmostcategoriesincludingbestpicture
themajorawardsarepresentedatalivetelevisedceremonymostcommonlyinfebruaryormarchfollowingtherelevantcalendaryearandsixweeksaftertheannouncementofthenomineesitistheculminationofthefilmawardsseasonwhichusuallybeginsduringnovemberordecemberofthepreviousyearthisisanelaborateextravaganzawiththeinvitedguestswalkinguptheredcarpetinthecreationsofthemostprominentfashiondesignersofthedayblacktiedressisthemostcommonoutfitformenalthoughfashionmaydictatenotwearingabowtieandmusicalperformerssometimesdonotadheretothistheartistswhorecordedthenomineesforbestoriginalsongquiteoftenperformthosesongsliveattheawardsceremonyandthefactthattheyareperformingisoftenusedtopromotethetelevisionbroadcast
theacademyawardsistelevisedliveacrosstheunitedstatesexcludingalaskaandhawaiicanadatheunitedkingdomandgathersmillionsofviewerselsewherethroughouttheworldthe2007ceremonywaswatchedbymorethan40millionamericansotherawardsceremoniessuchastheemmysgoldenglobesandgrammysarebroadcastliveintheeastcoastbutareontapedelayinthewestcoastandmightnotaironthesamedayoutsidenorthamericaiftheawardsareeventelevisedtheacademyhasforseveralyearsclaimedthattheawardshowhasuptoabillionviewersinternationallybutthishassofarnotbeenconfirmedbyanyindependentsourcestheawardsshowwasfirsttelevisedonnbcin1953nbccontinuedtobroadcasttheeventuntil1960whentheabcnetworktookovertelevisingthefestivitiesthrough1970afterwhichnbcresumedthebroadcastsabconceagaintookoverbroadcastdutiesin1976itisundercontracttodosothroughtheyear2020
aftermorethansixtyyearsofbeingheldinlatemarchorearlyapriltheceremoniesweremoveduptolatefebruaryorearlymarchstartingin2004tohelpdisruptandshortentheintenselobbyingandadcampaignsassociatedwithoscarseasoninthefilmindustryanotherreasonwasbecauseofthegrowingtvratingssuccessofthencaamensdivisionibasketballchampionshipwhichwouldcutintotheacademyawardsaudiencetheearlierdateisalsototheadvantageofabcasitnowusuallyoccursduringthehighlyprofitableandimportantfebruarysweepsperiodsomeyearstheceremonyismovedintoearlymarchindeferencetothewinterolympicsadvertisingissomewhatrestrictedhoweverastraditionallynomoviestudiosorcompetitorsofofficialacademyawardsponsorsmayadvertiseduringthetelecasttheawardsshowholdsthedistinctionofhavingwonthemostemmysinhistorywith47winsand195nominations
aftermanyyearsofbeingheldonmondaysat900pmeastern600pmpacificin1999theceremoniesweremovedtosundaysat830pmeastern530pmpacific
onmarch301981theawardsceremonywaspostponedforonedayaftertheshootingofpresidentronaldreaganandothersinwashingtondc
in1993aninmemoriamsegmentwasintroducedhonoringthosewhohadmadeasignificantcontributiontocinemawhohaddiedinthepreceding12monthsaselectioncompiledbyasmallcommitteeofacademymembersthissegmenthasdrawncriticismovertheyearsfortheomissionofsomenames
in2010theorganizersoftheacademyawardsannouncedthatwinnersacceptancespeechesmustnotrunpast45secondsthisaccordingtoorganizerbillmechanicwastoensuretheeliminationofwhathetermedthesinglemosthatedthingontheshowoverlylongandembarrassingdisplaysofemotion
theacademyhasalsohadrecentdiscussionsaboutmovingtheceremonyevenfurtherbackintojanuarycitingtvviewersfatiguewiththefilmindustryslongawardsseasonbutsuchanacceleratedschedulewoulddramaticallydecreasethevotingperiodforitsmemberstothepointwheresomevoterswouldonlyhavetimetoviewthecontendingfilmsstreamedontheircomputersasopposedtotraditionallyreceivingthefilmsandballotsinthemailalsoajanuaryceremonymayhavetocompetewithnationalfootballleagueplayoffgames
historicallytheoscarcasthaspulledinabiggerhaulwhenboxofficehitsarefavoredtowinthebestpicturetrophymorethan5725millionviewerstunedtothetelecastforthe70thacademyawardsin1998theyearoftitanicwhichgeneratedclosetous600millionatthenorthamericanboxofficepreoscarsthe76thacademyawardsceremonyinwhichpretelecastboxofficeearningsofus368millionreceived11awardsincludingbestpicturedrew4356millionviewersthemostwatchedceremonybasedonnielsenratingstodatehoweverwasthe42ndacademyawardsbestpicturemidnightcowboywhichdrewa434householdratingonapril71970
bycontrastceremonieshonoringfilmsthathavenotperformedwellattheboxofficetendtoshowweakerratingsthe78thacademyawardswhichawardedlowbudgetedindependentfilmcrashwithapreoscargrossofus534milliongeneratedanaudienceof3864millionwithahouseholdratingof2291in2008the80thacademyawardstelecastwaswatchedby3176millionviewersonaveragewithan1866householdratingthelowestratedandleastwatchedceremonytodateinspiteofcelebrating80yearsoftheacademyawardsthebestpicturewinnerofthatparticularceremonywasanotherlowbudgetindependentlyfinancedfilmnocountryforoldmen
in1929thefirstacademyawardswerepresentedatabanquetdinneratthehollywoodroosevelthotelfrom19301943theawardswerepresentedfirstattheambassadorhotelinhollywoodthentheoscarceremonieswereheldatthebiltmorehotelindowntownlosangelesfrom1930to1943
graumanschinesetheaterinhollywoodthenhostedtheawardsfrom1944to1946followedbytheshrineauditoriuminlosangelesfrom1947to1948the21stacademyawardsin1949wereheldattheacademyawardtheateratwhatwastheacademysheadquartersonmelroseavenueinhollywood
from1950to1960theawardswerepresentedathollywoodspantagestheatrewiththeadventoftelevisionthe19531957awardstookplacesimultaneouslyinhollywoodandnewyorkfirstatthenbcinternationaltheatre1953andthenatthenbccenturytheatre19541957afterwhichtheceremonytookplacesolelyinlosangelestheoscarsmovedtothesantamonicacivicauditoriuminsantamonicacaliforniain1961by1969theacademydecidedtomovetheceremoniesbacktolosangelesthistimetothedorothychandlerpavilionatthelosangelescountymusiccenter
in2002hollywoodskodaktheatrebecamethepermanenthomeoftheawardceremonies
inthefirstyearoftheawardsthebestdirectorawardwassplitintotwoseparatecategoriesdramaandcomedyattimesthebestoriginalscoreawardhasalsobeensplitintoseparatecategoriesdramaandcomedymusicalfromthe1930sthroughthe1960stheartdirectioncinematographyandcostumedesignawardswerelikewisesplitintotwoseparatecategoriesblackandwhitefilmsandcolorfilms
anotherawardentitledtheacademyawardforbestoriginalmusicalisstillintheacademyrulebooksandhasyettoberetiredhoweverduetocontinuousinsufficienteligibilityeachyearithasnotbeenawardedsince1984whenpurplerainwon
theboardofgovernorsmeetseachyearandconsidersnewawardstodatethefollowingproposedawardshavenotbeenapproved
theseawardsarevotedonbyspecialcommitteesratherthanbytheacademymembershipasawholebuttheindividualselectedtoreceivethespecialawardmaydeclinetheoffertheyarenotalwayspresentedonaconsistentannualbasis
duetothepositiveexposureandprestigeoftheacademyawardsstudiosspendmillionsofdollarsandhirepublicistsspecificallytopromotetheirfilmsduringwhatistypicallycalledtheoscarseasonthishasgeneratedaccusationsoftheacademyawardsbeinginfluencedmorebymarketingthanqualitywilliamfriedkinanacademyawardwinningfilmdirectorandformerproduceroftheceremonyexpressedthissentimentataconferenceinnewyorkin2009describingitasthegreatestpromotionschemethatanyindustryeverdevisedforitself
inadditionsomewinnerscriticaloftheacademyawardshaveboycottedtheceremoniesandrefusedtoaccepttheiroscarsthefirsttodosowasdudleynicholsbestwritingin1935fortheinformernicholsboycottedthe8thacademyawardsceremonybecauseofconflictsbetweentheacademyandthewritersguildgeorgecscottbecamethesecondpersontorefusehisawardbestactorin1970forpattonatthe43rdacademyawardsceremonyscottdescribeditasameatparadesayingidontwantanypartofitthethirdwinnermarlonbrandorefusedhisawardbestactorin1972forthegodfathercitingthefilmindustrysdiscriminationandmistreatmentofnativeamericansatthe45thacademyawardsceremonybrandosentsacheenlittlefeathertoreada15pagespeechdetailinghiscriticisms
ithasbeenobservedthatseveraloftheacademyawardwinnersparticularlybestpicturehavenotstoodthetestoftimeordefeatedworthiereffortstimdirkseditorofamcsfilmsiteorghaswrittenoftheacademyawards
bestpictureisnottheonlycategorytocomeundercriticisminhisreviewofthelivesofothersnickdavisargued
actingprizesincertainyearshavebeencriticizedfornotrecognizingsuperiorperformancessomuchasbeingawardedforsentimentalreasonspersonalpopularityatonementforpastmistakesorpresentedasacareerhonortorecognizeadistinguishednomineesentirebodyofwork
thefollowingeventsarecloselyassociatedwiththeannualacademyawardsceremony
actriuscatalanactressesisa1996filmdirectedbyventuraponsinthefilmtherearenomaleactorsandthefourleadingactressesdubbedthemselvesinthecastilianversion
inordertopreparetheroleofanimportantoldactressatheatrestudentinterviewsthreeactresseswhowereherpupilsaninternationaldivaglòriamarcplayedbynúriaespertatelevisionstarassumptarocaplayedbyrosamariasardàandadubbingdirectormariacaminalplayedbyannalizaran
animaliaisbn0810918684isanillustratedchildrensbookbygraemebaseitwaspublishedin1986
animaliaisanalliterativealphabetbookandcontainstwentysixillustrationsoneforeachletterofthealphabeteachillustrationfeaturesananimalfromtheanimalkingdomaisforalligatorbisforbutterflyetcalongwithashortpoemutilizingtheletterofthepageformanyofthewordstheillustrationscontainmanyotherobjectsbeginningwiththatletterthatthereadercantrytoidentifyasanadditionalchallengetheauthorhashiddenapictureofhimselfasachildineverypicturein1987animaliawonthetitleofhonourbookinthechildrensbookcouncilofaustraliapicturebookoftheyearawardsin1996atenthanniversaryeditionwasreleased
basealsopublishedacolouringbookversionforchildrentodotheirowncolouring
atelevisionserieswasalsocreatedbasedonthebookwhichairsintheunitedstatesaustraliacanadatheukandnorwayitalsoairsonminimaxfortheczechandslovakrepublics
graemebasealsocreatedaseriesofriddlesrelatingtohiddenobjectswithineachoftheillustrationswrittenespeciallyforthewallfrieze
in2010thebasefactoryandappbooksreleasedanimaliaasanapplicationforipadandiphoneipodtouch
websitestoanimaliabook
internationalatomictimetaifromthefrenchnametempsatomiqueinternationalisahighprecisionatomiccoordinatetimestandardbasedonthenotionalpassageofpropertimeonearthsgeoiditisthebasisforcoordinateduniversaltimeutcwhichisusedforciviltimekeepingallovertheearthssurfaceandforterrestrialtimewhichisusedforastronomicalcalculationssince20081231whenthelastleapsecondwasaddedtaihasbeenexactly34secondsaheadofutcthisisstilltrueasof2011090134secondsresultsfromtheinitialdifferenceof10secondsatthestartof1972plus24leapsecondsinutcsince1972
timecoordinatesonthetaiscalesareconventionallyspecifiedusingtraditionalmeansofspecifyingdayscarriedoverfromnonuniformtimestandardsbasedontherotationoftheearthspecificallybothjuliandatesandthegregoriancalendarareusedtaiinthisformwassynchronisedwithuniversaltimeatthebeginningof1958andthetwohavedriftedaparteversinceduetothechangingmotionoftheearth
taiasatimescaleisaweightedaverageofthetimekeptbyover200atomicclocksinabout70nationallaboratoriesworldwidetheclocksarecomparedusinggpssignalsandtwowaysatellitetimeandfrequencytransferduetotheaveragingitisfarmorestablethananyclockwouldbealoneseesignalaveragingforadiscussionthemajorityoftheclocksarecaesiumclocksthedefinitionofthesisecondiswrittenintermsofcaesium
theparticipatinginstitutionseachbroadcastinrealtimeafrequencysignalwithtimecodeswhichistheirestimateoftaitimecodesareusuallypublishedintheformofutcwhichdiffersfromtaibyawellknownintegernumberofsecondsthesetimescalesaredenotedintheformutcnplintheutcformwherenplinthiscaseidentifiesthenationalphysicallaboratoryukthetaiformmaybedenotedtainplthelatterisnottobeconfusedwithtanplwhichdenotesanindependentatomictimescalenotsynchronisedtotaiortoanythingelse
theclocksatdifferentinstitutionsareregularlycomparedagainsteachothertheinternationalbureauofweightsandmeasuresbipmfrancecombinesthesemeasurementstoretrospectivelycalculatetheweightedaveragethatformsthemoststabletimescalepossiblethiscombinedtimescaleispublishedmonthlyincirculartandisthecanonicaltaithistimescaleisexpressedintheformoftablesofdifferencesutcutckequivalenttotaitaikforeachparticipatinginstitutionkthesamecircularalsogivestablesoftaitakforthevariousunsynchronisedatomictimescales
errorsinpublicationmaybecorrectedbyissuingarevisionofthefaultycirculartorbyerratainasubsequentcirculartasidefromthisoncepublishedincirculartthetaiscaleisnotrevisedinhindsightitispossibletodiscovererrorsintaiandtomakebetterestimatesofthetruepropertimescaledoingsodoesnotcreateanotherversionoftaiitisinsteadconsideredtobecreatingabetterrealisationofterrestrialtimett
atomictimekeepingservicesstartedexperimentallyin1955usingthefirstcaesiumatomicclockatthenationalphysicallaboratoryuknplearlyatomictimescalesconsistedofquartzclockswithfrequenciescalibratedbyasingleatomicclocktheatomicclockswerenotoperatedcontinuouslythegreenwichatomicgascalebeganin1955attheroyalgreenwichobservatorytheunitedstatesnavalobservatorybeganthea1scale13september1956usinganatomichroncommercialatomicclockfollowedbythenbsascaleatthenationalbureauofstandardsbouldercoloradotheinternationaltimebureaubihbeganatimescaletoraminjuly1955usingbothlocalcaesiumclocksandcomparisonstodistantclocksusingthephaseofvlfradiosignalsboththebihscaleanda1wasdefinedbyanepochatthebeginningof1958itwassettoreadjuliandate243620451january1958000000atthecorrespondingut2instanttheproceduresusedbythebihevolvedandthenameforthetimescalechangeda3in1963andtabihin1969thissynchronisationwasinevitablyimperfectdependingasitdidontheastronomicalrealisationofut2atthetimeut2aspublishedbyvariousobservatoriesdifferedbyseveralcentiseconds
thesisecondwasdefinedintermsofthecaesiumatomin1967andin1971itwasrenamedinternationalatomictimetai
alsoin1961utcbeganutcisadiscontinuoustimescalecomposedfromsegmentsthatarelineartransformationsofatomictimethediscontinuitiesbeingarrangedsothatutcapproximatedut2untiltheendof1971andut1thereafterthiswasacompromisearrangementforabroadcasttimescalealineartransformationofthebihsatomictimemeantthatthetimescalewasstableandinternationallysynchronisedwhileapproximatingut1meansthattaskssuchasnavigationwhichrequireasourceofuniversaltimecontinuetobewellservedbypublictimebroadcasts
inthe1970sitbecameclearthattheclocksparticipatingintaiweretickingatdifferentratesduetogravitationaltimedilationandthecombinedtaiscalethereforecorrespondedtoanaverageofthealtitudesofthevariousclocksstartingfromjuliandate244314451january1977000000correctionswereappliedtotheoutputofallparticipatingclockssothattaiwouldcorrespondtopropertimeatmeansealevelthegeoidbecausetheclockshadbeenonaveragewellabovesealevelthismeantthattaisloweddownbyabout10theformeruncorrectedtimescalecontinuestobepublishedunderthenameealechelleatomiquelibremeaningfreeatomicscale
theinstantthatthegravitationalcorrectionstartedtobeappliedservesastheepochforbarycentriccoordinatetimetcbgeocentriccoordinatetimetcgandterrestrialtimettallthreeofthesetimescalesweredefinedtoreadjd244314450037251january1977000032184exactlyatthatinstanttheoffsetistoprovidecontinuitywiththeolderephemeristimetaiwashencefortharealisationofttwiththeequationtttaitai32184s
thecontinuedexistenceoftaiwasquestionedina2007letterfromthebipmtotheiturwhichstatedinthecaseofaredefinitionofutcwithoutleapsecondsthecctfwouldconsiderdiscussingthepossibilityofsuppressingtaiasitwouldremainparalleltothecontinuousutc
altruismisaconcernforthewelfareofothersitisatraditionalvirtueinmanyculturesandacoreaspectofvariousreligioustraditionsthoughtheconceptofotherstowardwhomconcernshouldbedirectedcanvaryamongculturesandreligionsaltruismistheoppositeofselfishness
altruismcanbedistinguishedfromfeelingsofloyaltyanddutyaltruismisamotivationtoprovideavaluetoapartywhomustbeanyonebuttheselfwhiledutyfocusesonamoralobligationtowardsaspecificindividualforexampleagodakingorcollectiveforexampleagovernmentsomeindividualsmayfeelbothaltruismanddutywhileothersmaynotpurealtruismisgivingupavaluearewardorbenefitwithnoexpectationofanycompensationorbenefitseitherdirectorindirectforinstancefromrecognitionofthegiving
thetermaltruismmayalsorefertoanethicaldoctrinethatclaimsthatindividualsaremorallyobligedtobenefitothersusedinthissenseitistheoppositeofegoism
theconcepthasalonghistoryinphilosophicalandethicalthoughtthetermwasoriginallycoinedinthe19thcenturybythefoundingsociologistandphilosopherofscienceaugustecomteandhasbecomeamajortopicforpsychologistsespeciallyevolutionarypsychologyresearchersevolutionarybiologistsandethologistswhileideasaboutaltruismfromonefieldcanhaveanimpactontheotherfieldsthedifferentmethodsandfocusesofthesefieldsleadtodifferentperspectivesonaltruism
marcelmausssbookthegiftcontainsapassagenoteonalmsthisnotedescribestheevolutionofthenotionofalmsandbyextensionofaltruismfromthenotionofsacrifice
inthescienceofethologythestudyofanimalbehaviourandmoregenerallyinthestudyofsocialevolutionaltruismreferstobehaviourbyanindividualthatincreasesthefitnessofanotherindividualwhiledecreasingthefitnessoftheactor
theoriesofapparentlyaltruisticbehaviorwereacceleratedbytheneedtoproducetheoriescompatiblewithevolutionaryoriginstworelatedstrandsofresearchonaltruismhaveemergedoutoftraditionalevolutionaryanalysesandfromgametheoryrespectively
someoftheproposedmechanismsare
thestudyofaltruismwastheinitialimpetusbehindgeorgerpricesdevelopmentofthepriceequationwhichisamathematicalequationusedtostudygeneticevolutionaninterestingexampleofaltruismisfoundinthecellularslimemouldssuchasdictyosteliummucoroidestheseprotistsliveasindividualamoebaeuntilstarvedatwhichpointtheyaggregateandformamulticellularfruitingbodyinwhichsomecellssacrificethemselvestopromotethesurvivalofothercellsinthefruitingbodysocialbehaviorandaltruismsharemanysimilaritiestotheinteractionsbetweenthemanypartscellsgenesofanorganismbutaredistinguishedbytheabilityofeachindividualtoreproduceindefinitelywithoutanabsoluterequirementforitsneighbors
jorgemollandjordangrafmanneuroscientistsatthenationalinstitutesofhealthandlabsdorhospitalnetworkjmprovidedthefirstevidencefortheneuralbasesofaltruisticgivinginnormalhealthyvolunteersusingfunctionalmagneticresonanceimagingintheirresearchpublishedintheproceedingsofthenationalacademyofsciencesusainoctober2006theyshowedthatbothpuremonetaryrewardsandcharitabledonationsactivatedthemesolimbicrewardpathwayaprimitivepartofthebrainthatusuallylightsupinresponsetofoodandsexhoweverwhenvolunteersgenerouslyplacedtheinterestsofothersbeforetheirownbymakingcharitabledonationsanotherbraincircuitwasselectivelyactivatedthesubgenualcortexseptalregionthesestructuresareintimatelyrelatedtosocialattachmentandbondinginotherspeciesaltruismtheexperimentsuggestedwasnotasuperiormoralfacultythatsuppressesbasicselfishurgesbutratherwasbasictothebrainhardwiredandpleasurable
anotherexperimentfundedbythenationalinstitutesofhealthandconductedin2007atthedukeuniversityindurhamnorthcarolinasuggestsadifferentviewthataltruisticbehaviormayoriginatefromhowpeopleviewtheworldratherthanhowtheyactinitinthestudypublishedinthefebruary2007printissueofnatureneuroscienceresearchershavefoundapartofthebrainthatbehavesdifferentlyforaltruisticandselfishpeople
theresearchersinvited45volunteerstoplayacomputergameandalsotowatchthecomputerplaythegameinsomeroundsthegameresultedinthevolunteerswinningmoneyforthemselvesandinothersitresultedinmoneybeingdonatedtoacharityofthevolunteerschoiceduringtheseactivitiestheresearcherstookfunctionalmagneticresonanceimagingfmriscansoftheparticipantsbrainsandweresurprisedbytheresultsalthoughtheywereexpectingtoseeactivityinthebrainsrewardcentersbasedontheideathatpeopleperformaltruisticactsbecausetheyfeelgoodaboutitwhattheyfoundwasthatanotherpartofthebrainwasalsoinvolvedanditwasquitesensitivetothedifferencebetweendoingsomethingforpersonalgainanddoingitforsomeoneelsesgainthatpartofthebrainiscalledtheposteriorsuperiortemporalcortexpstc
inthenextstagethescientistsaskedtheparticipantssomequestionsabouttypeandfrequencyoftheiraltruisticorhelpingbehaviourstheythenanalysedtheresponsestogenerateanestimateofapersonstendencytoactaltruisticallyandcomparedeachpersonslevelofaltruismagainsttheirfmribrainscantheresultsshowedthatpstcactivityroseinproportiontoapersonsselfreportedlevelofaltruismaccordingtotheresearcherstheresultssuggestthataltruisticbehaviormayoriginatefromhowpeopleviewtheworldratherthanhowtheyactinitwebelievethattheabilitytoperceiveotherpeoplesactionsasmeaningfuliscriticalforaltruismsaidleadstudyinvestigatordharoltankersley
mostifnotalloftheworldsreligionspromotealtruismasaveryimportantmoralvaluebuddhismchristianityhinduismislamjainismjudaismandsikhismetcplaceparticularemphasisonaltruisticmorality
altruismfiguresprominentlyinbuddhismloveandcompassionarecomponentsofallformsofbuddhismandbotharefocusedonallbeingsequallythewishthatallbeingsbehappyloveandthewishthatallbeingsbefreefromsufferingcompassionmanyillnessescanbecuredbytheonemedicineofloveandcompassionthesequalitiesaretheultimatesourceofhumanhappinessandtheneedforthemliesattheverycoreofourbeingdalailama
sinceallbeingsincludestheindividualloveandcompassioninbuddhismareoutsidetheoppositionbetweenselfandotheritisevensaidthattheverydistinctionbetweenselfandotherispartoftherootcauseofoursufferinginpracticaltermshoweverbecauseofthespontaneousselfcenterednessofmostofusbuddhismencouragesustofocusloveandcompassiononothersandthuscanbecharacterizedasaltruisticmanywouldagreewiththedalailamathatbuddhismasareligioniskindnesstowardothers
stilltheverynotionofaltruismismodifiedinsuchaworldviewsincethebeliefisthatsuchapracticepromotesourownhappinessthemorewecareforthehappinessofothersthegreaterourownsenseofwellbeingbecomesdalailama
inthecontextoflargerethicaldiscussionsonmoralactionandjudgmentbuddhismischaracterizedbythebeliefthatnegativeunhappyconsequencesofouractionsderivenotfrompunishmentorcorrectionbasedonmoraljudgmentbutonthelawofkarmawhichfunctionslikeanaturallawofcauseandeffectonesimpleillustrationofsuchcauseandeffectwouldbethecaseofexperiencingtheeffectsofwhatimyselfcauseificausesufferingiwillasanaturalconsequenceexperiencesufferingificausehappinessiwillasanaturalconsequenceexperiencehappiness
inbuddhismkarmapālikammaisstrictlydistinguishedfromvipākameaningfruitorresultkarmaiscategorizedwithinthegrouporgroupsofcausepālihetuinthechainofcauseandeffectwhereitcomprisestheelementsofvolitionalactivitiespalisankharaandactionpalibhavaanyactionisunderstoodtocreateseedsinthemindthatwillsproutintotheappropriateresultpālivipakawhentheymeetwiththerightconditionsmosttypesofkarmaswithgoodorbadresultswillkeeponewithinthewheelofsamsāraotherswillliberateonetonirvāna
buddhismrelateskarmadirectlytomotivesbehindanactionmotivationusuallymakesthedifferencebetweengoodandbadbutincludedinthemotivationisalsotheaspectofignorancesoawellintendedactionfromanignorantmindcaneasilybebadinthesensethatitcreatesunpleasantresultsfortheactor
inbuddhismkarmaisnottheonlycauseofeverythingthathappensthecommentarialtraditionclassifiedcausalmechanismsgoverningtheuniverseastaughtintheearlytextsinfivecategoriesknownasniyamadhammas
thefundamentalprinciplesofjainismrevolvearoundtheconceptofaltruismnotonlyforhumansbutforallsentientbeingsthisreligionpreachestheviewofahimsatoliveandletlivetherebynotharmingsentientbeingsieuncompromisingreverenceforalllifejainismconsidersalllivingthingstobeequalthefirstthirthankarrishabhintroducedtheconceptofaltruismforalllivingbeingsfromextendingknowledgeandexperiencetootherstodonationgivingoneselfupforothersnonviolenceandcompassionforalllivingthings
jainismprescribesapathofnonviolencetoprogressthesoultothisultimategoaljainsbelievethattoattainenlightenmentandultimatelyliberationonemustpracticethefollowingethicalprinciplesmajorvowsinthoughtspeechandactionthedegreetowhichtheseprinciplesarepracticedisdifferentforhouseholdersandmonkstheyarenonviolenceahimsatruthfulnesssatyanonstealingasteyacelibacybrahmacharyanonpossessionornonmaterialismaparigraha
amajorcharacteristicofjainbeliefistheemphasisontheconsequencesofnotonlyphysicalbutalsomentalbehaviorsonesunconqueredmindwithangerprideegodeceitgreedanduncontrolledsenseorgansarethepowerfulenemiesofhumansangerspoilsgoodrelationspridedestroyshumilitydeceitdestroyspeaceandgreeddestroyseverythingjainismrecommendsconqueringangerbyforgivenessprideegobyhumilitydeceitbystraightforwardnessandgreedbycontentment
theprincipleofnonviolenceseekstominimizekarmaswhichlimitthecapabilitiesofthesouljainismviewseverysoulasworthyofrespectbecauseithasthepotentialtobecomesiddhaparamatmahighestsoulbecausealllivingbeingspossessasoulgreatcareandawarenessisessentialinonesactionsjainismemphasizestheequalityofalllifeadvocatingharmlessnesstowardsallwhetherthecreaturesaregreatorsmallthispolicyextendseventomicroscopicorganismsjainismacknowledgesthateverypersonhasdifferentcapabilitiesandcapacitiestopracticeandthereforeacceptsdifferentlevelsofcomplianceforasceticsandhouseholdersthegreatvowsmahavrataareprescribedformonksandlimitedvowsanuvrataareprescribedforhouseholdersinotherwordsthehouseholdersareencouragedtopracticethefivecardinalprinciplesofnonviolencetruthfulnessnonstealingcelibacyandnonpossessivenesswiththeircurrentpracticallimitationswhilethemonkshavetoobservethemverystrictlywithconsistentpracticeitwillbepossibletoovercomethelimitationsgraduallyacceleratingthespiritualprogress
altruismwascentraltotheteachingsofjesusfoundinthegospelespeciallyinthesermononthemountandthesermonontheplainfrombiblicaltomedievalchristiantraditionstensionsbetweenselfaffirmationandotherregardweresometimesdiscussedundertheheadingofdisinterestedloveasinthepaulinephraseloveseeksnotitsowninterestsinhisbookindoctrinationandselfdeceptionroderickhinderytriestoshedlightonthesetensionsbycontrastingthemwithimpostorsofauthenticselfaffirmationandaltruismbyanalysisofotherregardwithincreativeindividuationoftheselfandbycontrastingloveforthefewwithloveforthemanyloveconfirmsothersintheirfreedomshunspropagandasandmasksassuresothersofitspresenceandisultimatelyconfirmednotbymeredeclarationsfromothersbutbyeachpersonsexperienceandpracticefromwithinasinpracticalartsthepresenceandmeaningoflovebecomesvalidatedandgraspednotbywordsandreflectionsalonebutinthemakingoftheconnection
thoughitmightseemobviousthataltruismiscentraltotheteachingsofjesusoneimportantandinfluentialstrandofchristianitywouldqualifythisstthomasaquinasinthesummatheologicaiiiquaestio26article4statesthatweshouldloveourselvesmorethanourneighbourhisinterpretationofthepaulinephraseisthatweshouldseekthecommongoodmorethantheprivategoodbutthisisbecausethecommongoodisamoredesirablegoodfortheindividualyoushouldloveyourneighbourasyourselffromleviticus19andmatthew22isinterpretedbystthomasasmeaningthatloveforourselvesistheexemplarofloveforothershedoesthinkthoughthatweshouldlovegodmorethanourselvesandourneighbourtakenasanentiretymorethanourbodilylifesincetheultimatepurposeofloveofourneighbouristoshareineternalbeatitudeamoredesirablethingthanbodilywellbeingcomtewasprobablyopposingthisthomisticdoctrinewhichispresentinsometheologicalschoolswithincatholicismincoiningthewordaltruismasstatedabove
manybiblicalauthorsdrawastrongconnectionbetweenloveofothersandloveofgodin1john4itisstatedthatforonetolovegodonemustlovehisfellowmanandthathatredofonesfellowmanisthesameashatredofgod
thomasjayoordhasarguedinseveralbooksthataltruismisbutonepossibleformofloveanaltruisticactionisnotalwaysalovingactionoorddefinesaltruismasactingforthegoodoftheotherandheagreeswithfeministswhonotethatsometimesloverequiresactingforonesowngoodwhenthedemandsoftheotherundermineoverallwellbeing
insufismtheconceptofīṯāraltruismisthenotionofpreferringotherstooneselfforsufisthismeansdevotiontoothersthroughcompleteforgetfulnessofonesownconcernstheimportanceliesinsacrificeforthesakeofthegreatergoodislamconsidersthosepracticingitharasabidingbythehighestdegreeofnobilitythisissimilartothenotionofchivalrybutunliketheeuropeanconceptthereisafocusonattentiontoeverythinginexistenceaconstantconcernforallahresultsinacarefulattitudetowardspeopleanimalsandotherthingsinthisworldthisconceptwasemphasizedbysufimysticslikerabiaaladawiyyawhopaidattentiontothedifferenceindedicationtoallahanddedicationtopeople13thcenturyturkishsufipoetyunusemreexplainedthisphilosophyasyaratılanıseverizyaratandanötürüorwelovethecreaturebecauseofthecreatorinpracticeformanymuslimsitharisonlypracticedduringspecificislamicholidayshoweveritharisstillanislamicidealtowhichallmuslimsshouldstrivetoadhereatalltimes
judaismdefinesaltruismasthedesiredgoalofcreationthefamousrabbiabrahamisaackookstatedthatloveisthemostimportantattributeinhumanitythisisdefinedasbestowalorgivingwhichistheintentionofaltruismthiscanbealtruismtowardshumanitythatleadstoaltruismtowardsthecreatororgodkabbalahdefinesgodastheforceofgivinginexistencerabbimoshechaimluzzattoinparticularfocusedonthepurposeofcreationandhowthewillofgodwastobringcreationintoperfectionandadhesionwiththisupperforce
modernkabbalahdevelopedbyrabbiyehudaashlaginhiswritingsaboutthefuturegenerationfocusesonhowsocietycouldachieveanaltruisticsocialframeworkashlagproposedthatsuchaframeworkisthepurposeofcreationandeverythingthathappensistoraisehumanitytothelevelofaltruismloveforoneanotherashlagfocusedonsocietyanditsrelationtodivinity
altruismisessentialtothesikhreligioninthelate17thcenturygurugobindsinghjithetenthguruinsikhismwasinwarwiththemoghulrulerstoprotectthepeopleofdifferentfaithswhenafellowsikhbhaikanhaiyaattendedthetroopsoftheenemyhegavewatertobothfriendsandfoeswhowerewoundedonthebattlefieldsomeoftheenemybegantofightagainandsomesikhwarriorswereannoyedbybhaikanhaiyaashewashelpingtheirenemysikhsoldiersbroughtbhaikanhaiyabeforegurugobindsinghjiandcomplainedofhisactionthattheyconsideredcounterproductivetotheirstruggleonthebattlefieldwhatwereyoudoingandwhyaskedtheguruiwasgivingwatertothewoundedbecauseisawyourfaceinallofthemrepliedbhaikanhaiyathegururespondedthenyoushouldalsogivethemointmenttohealtheirwoundsyouwerepracticingwhatyouwerecoachedinthehouseoftheguru
itwasunderthetutelageoftheguruthatbhaikanhaiyasubsequentlyfoundedavolunteercorpsforaltruismthisvolunteercorpsstilltodateisengagedindoinggoodtoothersandtrainsnewvolunteeringrecruitsfordoingthesame
advaitavedantadiffersfromtheviewthatkarmaisalawofcauseandeffectbutinsteadadditionallyholdthatkarmaismediatedbythewillofapersonalsupremegodthisviewofkarmaisincontradictiontobuddhismjainismandotherindianreligionsthatdoviewkarmaasalawofcauseandeffect
swamisivanandaanadvaitascholarreiteratesthesameviewsinhiscommentarysynthesisingvedantaviewsonthebrahmasutrasavedantictextinhiscommentaryonchapter3ofthebrahmasutrassivanandanotesthatkarmaisinsentientandshortlivedandceasestoexistassoonasadeedisexecutedhencekarmacannotbestowthefruitsofactionsatafuturedateaccordingtoonesmeritfurthermoreonecannotarguethatkarmageneratesapurvaorpunyawhichgivesfruitsinceapurvaisnonsentientitcannotactunlessmovedbyanintelligentbeingsuchasagoditcannotindependentlybestowrewardorpunishment
aynrandbornalisazinovyevnarosenbaummarch61982wasarussianamericannovelistphilosopherplaywrightandscreenwritersheisknownforhertwobestsellingnovelsthefountainheadandatlasshruggedandfordevelopingaphilosophicalsystemshecalledobjectivism
bornandeducatedinrussiarandmovedtotheunitedstatesin1926sheworkedasascreenwriterinhollywoodandhadaplayproducedonbroadwayin19351936aftertwoinitiallyunsuccessfulearlynovelssheachievedfamewithher1943novelthefountainheadin1957shepublishedherbestknownworkthephilosophicalnovelatlasshruggedafterwardsheturnedtononfictiontopromoteherphilosophypublishingherownmagazinesandreleasingseveralcollectionsofessaysuntilherdeathin1982
inherphilosophyofobjectivismrandadvocatedreasonastheonlymeansofacquiringknowledgeandrejectedallformsoffaithandreligionshesupportedrationalegoismandrejectedethicalaltruisminpoliticsshecondemnedtheinitiationofforceasimmoralandopposedallformsofcollectivismandstatisminsteadsupportinglaissezfairecapitalismwhichshebelievedwastheonlysocialsystemthatprotectedindividualrightsshepromotedromanticrealisminartshewassharplycriticalofmostotherphilosophersandphilosophicaltraditions
thereceptionforrandsfictionfromliterarycriticswaslargelynegativeandmostacademicshaveignoredorrejectedherphilosophynonethelessshecontinuestohaveapopularfollowingandherpoliticalideashavebeeninfluentialamonglibertariansandsomeconservativestheobjectivistmovementattemptstospreadherideasbothtothepublicandinacademicsettings
randwasbornalisazinovyevnarosenbaumonfebruary21905toabourgeoisfamilylivinginsaintpetersburgshewastheeldestofthethreedaughtersofzinovyzakharovichrosenbaumandannaborisovnarosenbaumlargelynonobservantjewsrandsfatherwasasuccessfulpharmacisteventuallyowninghisownpharmacyandthebuildinginwhichitwaslocatedrandwastwelveatthetimeoftherussianrevolutionof1917duringwhichhersympathieswerewithalexanderkerenskyrandsfamilylifewasdisruptedbytheriseofthebolshevikpartyundervladimirleninherfatherspharmacywasconfiscatedbythebolsheviksandthefamilyfledtothecrimeawhichwasinitiallyunderthecontrolofthewhitearmyduringtherussiancivilwarshelaterrecalledthatwhileinhighschoolshedeterminedthatshewasanatheistandthatshevaluedreasonaboveanyotherhumanattributeaftergraduatingfromhighschoolinthecrimeaatsixteenrandreturnedwithherfamilytopetrogradthenewnameforsaintpetersburgwheretheyfaceddesperateconditionsonoccasionnearlystarving
alongwithmanyotherbourgeoisstudentsrandwaspurgedfromtheuniversityshortlybeforegraduatinghoweveraftercomplaintsfromagroupofvisitingforeignscientistsmanyofthepurgedstudentswereallowedtocompletetheirworkandgraduatewhichranddidinoctober1924shesubsequentlystudiedforayearatthestatetechnicumforscreenartsinleningradforoneofherassignmentsshewroteanessayabouttheactresspolanegriwhichbecameherfirstpublishedwork
bythistimeshehaddecidedherprofessionalsurnameforwritingwouldberandpossiblyasacyrilliccontractionofherbirthsurnameandsheadoptedthefirstnameayneitherfromafinnishnameorfromthehebrewwordayinmeaningeye
initiallyrandstruggledinhollywoodandtookoddjobstopayherbasiclivingexpensesachancemeetingwithfameddirectorcecilbdemilleledtoajobasanextrainhisfilmthekingofkingsandtosubsequentworkasajuniorscreenwriterwhileworkingonthekingofkingsshemetanaspiringyoungactorfrankoconnorthetwoweremarriedonapril151929randbecameanamericancitizenin1931takingvariousjobsduringthe1930stosupportherwritingrandworkedforatimeastheheadofthecostumedepartmentatrkostudiosshemadeseveralattemptstobringherparentsandsisterstotheunitedstatesbuttheywereunabletoacquirepermissiontoemigrate
randsfirstliterarysuccesscamewiththesaleofherscreenplayredpawntouniversalstudiosin1932althoughitwasneverproducedthiswasfollowedbythecourtroomdramanightofjanuary16thfirstproducedinhollywoodin1934andthensuccessfullyreopenedonbroadwayin1935eachnightthejurywasselectedfrommembersoftheaudienceandoneofthetwodifferentendingsdependingonthejurysverdictwouldthenbeperformedin1941paramountpicturesproducedamovieversionoftheplayranddidnotparticipateintheproductionandwashighlycriticaloftheresult
randsfirstnovelthesemiautobiographicalwethelivingwaspublishedin1936setinsovietrussiaitfocusedonthestrugglebetweentheindividualandthestateintheforewordtothenovelrandstatedthatwethelivingisasneartoanautobiographyasiwilleverwriteitisnotanautobiographyintheliteralbutonlyintheintellectualsensetheplotisinventedthebackgroundisnotinitialsaleswereslowandtheamericanpublisherletitgooutofprintalthougheuropeaneditionscontinuedtosellafterthesuccessofherlaternovelsrandwasabletoreleasearevisedversionin1959thathassincesoldoverthreemillioncopieswithoutrandsknowledgeorpermissionthenovelwasmadeintoapairofitalianfilmsnoiviviandaddiokirain1942rediscoveredinthe1960sthesefilmswerereeditedintoanewversionwhichwasapprovedbyrandandrereleasedaswethelivingin1986
hernovellaanthemwaswrittenduringabreakfromthewritingofhernextmajornovelthefountainheaditpresentsavisionofadystopianfutureworldinwhichtotalitariancollectivismhastriumphedtosuchanextentthateventhewordihasbeenforgottenandreplacedwithweitwaspublishedinenglandin1938butrandinitiallycouldnotfindanamericanpublisheraswithwethelivingrandslatersuccessallowedhertogetarevisedversionpublishedin1946whichhassoldmorethan35millioncopies
duringthe1940srandbecamepoliticallyactivebothsheandherhusbandworkedfulltimeinvolunteerpositionsforthe1940presidentialcampaignofrepublicanwendellwillkiethisworkledtorandsfirstpublicspeakingexperiencesincludingfieldingthesometimeshostilequestionsfromnewyorkcityaudienceswhohadjustviewedprowillkienewsreelsanexperienceshegreatlyenjoyedthisactivityalsobroughtherintocontactwithotherintellectualssympathetictofreemarketcapitalismshebecamefriendswithjournalisthenryhazlittandhiswifeandhazlittintroducedhertotheaustrianschooleconomistludwigvonmisesdespiteherphilosophicaldifferenceswiththemrandstronglyendorsedthewritingsofbothmenthroughouthercareerandbothofthemexpressedadmirationforheroncevonmisesreferredtorandasthemostcourageousmaninamericaacomplimentthatparticularlypleasedherbecausehesaidmaninsteadofwomanrandalsodevelopedafriendshipwithlibertarianwriterisabelpatersonrandquestionedthewellinformedpatersonaboutamericanhistoryandpoliticslongintothenightduringtheirnumerousmeetingsandgavepatersonideasforheronlynonfictionbookthegodofthemachine
randsfirstmajorsuccessasawritercamewiththefountainheadin1943aromanticandphilosophicalnovelthatshewroteoveraperiodofsevenyearsthenovelcentersonanuncompromisingyoungarchitectnamedhowardroarkandhisstruggleagainstwhatranddescribedassecondhandersthosewhoattempttolivethroughothersplacingothersaboveselfitwasrejectedbytwelvepublishersbeforefinallybeingacceptedbythebobbsmerrillcompanyontheinsistenceofeditorarchibaldogdenwhothreatenedtoquitifhisemployerdidnotpublishitwhilecompletingthenovelrandwasprescribedtheamphetaminebenzedrinetofightfatiguethedrughelpedhertoworklonghourstomeetherdeadlinefordeliveringthefinishednovelbutwhenthebookwasdoneshewassoexhaustedthatherdoctororderedtwoweeksresthercontinueduseofthedrugforanumberofyearsmayhavecontributedtowhatsomeofherlaterassociatesdescribedasvolatilemoodswings
thefountainheadeventuallybecameaworldwidesuccessbringingrandfameandfinancialsecurityin1943randsoldtherightsforafilmversiontowarnerbrosandshereturnedtohollywoodtowritethescreenplayfinishingherworkonthatscreenplayshewashiredbyproducerhalwallisasascreenwriterandscriptdoctorherworkforwallisincludedthescreenplaysfortheoscarnominatedlovelettersandyoucamealongthisrolegaverandtimetoworkonotherprojectsincludingaplannednonfictiontreatmentofherphilosophytobecalledthemoralbasisofindividualismalthoughtheplannedbookwasnevercompletedacondensedversionwaspublishedasanessaytitledtheonlypathtotomorrowinthejanuary1944editionofreadersdigestmagazine
whileworkinginhollywoodrandextendedherinvolvementwithfreemarketandanticommunistactivismshebecameinvolvedwiththemotionpictureallianceforthepreservationofamericanidealsahollywoodanticommunistgroupandwrotearticlesonthegroupsbehalfshealsojoinedtheanticommunistamericanwritersassociationavisitbyisabelpatersontomeetwithrandscaliforniaassociatesledtoafinalfallingoutbetweenthetwowhenpatersonmadecommentsthatrandsawasrudetovaluedpoliticalalliesin1947duringthesecondredscarerandtestifiedasafriendlywitnessbeforetheunitedstateshouseunamericanactivitiescommitteehertestimonydescribedthedisparitybetweenherpersonalexperiencesinthesovietunionandtheportrayalofitinthe1944filmsongofrussiarandarguedthatthefilmgrosslymisrepresentedconditionsinthesovietunionportrayinglifethereasbeingmuchbetterandhappierthanitactuallywaswhenaskedaboutherfeelingsontheeffectivenessoftheinvestigationsafterthehearingsranddescribedtheprocessasfutile
afterseveraldelaysthefilmversionofthefountainheadwasreleasedin1949althoughitusedrandsscreenplaywithminimalalterationsshedislikedthemoviefrombeginningtoendcomplainingaboutitseditingactingandotherelements
afterthepublicationofthefountainheadrandreceivednumerouslettersfromreaderssomeofwhomithadprofoundlyinfluencedin1951randmovedfromlosangelestonewyorkcitywhereshegatheredagroupoftheseadmirersaroundherthisgroupjokinglydesignatedthecollectiveincludedfuturefederalreservechairmanalangreenspanayoungpsychologystudentnamednathanblumenthallaternathanielbrandenandhiswifebarbaraandbarbarascousinleonardpeikoffatfirstthegroupwasaninformalgatheringoffriendswhometwithrandonweekendsatherapartmenttodiscussphilosophylatershebeganallowingthemtoreadthedraftsofhernewnovelatlasshruggedasthemanuscriptpageswerewrittenin1954randscloserelationshipwiththemuchyoungernathanielbrandenturnedintoaromanticaffairwiththeconsentoftheirspouses
atlasshruggedpublishedin1957wasrandsmagnumopusranddescribedthethemeofthenovelastheroleofthemindinmansexistenceandasacorollarythedemonstrationofanewmoralphilosophythemoralityofrationalselfinterestitadvocatesthecoretenetsofrandsphilosophyofobjectivismandexpressesherconceptofhumanachievementtheplotinvolvesadystopianunitedstatesinwhichthemostcreativeindustrialistsscientistsandartistsgoonstrikeandretreattoamountainoushideawaywheretheybuildanindependentfreeeconomythenovelsheroandleaderofthestrikejohngaltdescribesthestrikeasstoppingthemotoroftheworldbywithdrawingthemindsoftheindividualsmostcontributingtothenationswealthandachievementwiththisfictionalstrikerandintendedtoillustratethatwithouttheeffortsoftherationalandproductivetheeconomywouldcollapseandsocietywouldfallapartthenovelincludeselementsofmysteryandsciencefictionanditcontainsrandsmostextensivestatementofobjectivisminanyofherworksoffictionalengthymonologuedeliveredbygaltatlasshruggedbecameaninternationalbestsellerandinaninterviewwithmikewallaceranddeclaredherselfthemostcreativethinkeraliveatlasshruggedwastoberandslastworkoffictionaturningpointinherlifeitmarkedtheendofrandscareerasanovelistandthebeginningofherroleasapopularphilosopheraftercompletingthenovelofmorethanonethousandpageshoweverrandfellintoaseveredepressionthatmayhavebeenaggravatedbyheruseofprescriptionamphetamines
in1958nathanielbrandenestablishednathanielbrandenlectureslaterincorporatedasthenathanielbrandeninstitutenbitopromoterandsphilosophycollectivemembersgavelecturesfornbiandwrotearticlesforobjectivistperiodicalsthatsheeditedrandlaterpublishedsomeofthesearticlesinbookformcriticsincludingsomeformernbistudentsandbrandenhimselfhavedescribedthecultureofnbiasoneofintellectualconformityandexcessivereverenceforrandwithsomedescribingnbiortheentireobjectivistmovementasacultorreligionrandexpressedopinionsonawiderangeoftopicsincludingliteraturemusicsexualityevenfacialhairandsomeofherfollowersmimickedallherpreferenceswearingclothestomatchcharactersfromhernovelsandbuyingfurniturelikehersrandwasunimpressedwithmanyofthenbistudentsandheldthemtostrictstandardssometimesreactingcoldlyorangrilytothosewhodisagreedwithherhoweversomeformernbistudentsbelievetheextentofthesebehaviorshasbeenexaggeratedwiththeproblembeingconcentratedamongrandsclosestfollowersinnewyork
throughoutthe1960sand1970sranddevelopedandpromotedherobjectivistphilosophythroughhernonfictionworksandbygivingtalkstostudentsatinstitutionssuchasyaleuniversityprincetonuniversitycolumbiauniversityharvarduniversityandmitshereceivedanhonorarydoctoratefromlewisampclarkcollegein1963shealsobegandeliveringannuallecturesatthefordhallforumrespondingafterwardinherfamouslyspiritedformtoquestionsfromtheaudienceduringthesespeechesandqampasessionssheoftentookcontroversialstancesonpoliticalandsocialissuesofthedaytheseincludedsupportingabortionrightsopposingthevietnamwarandthemilitarydraftbutcondemningmanydraftdodgersasbumssupportingisraelinthearabisraeliwarof1973ascivilizedmenfightingsavagessayingeuropeancolonistshadtherighttotakelandfromamericanindiansandcallinghomosexualityimmoralanddisgustingwhilealsoadvocatingtherepealofalllawsagainstitshealsoendorsedseveralrepublicancandidatesforpresidentoftheunitedstatesmoststronglybarrygoldwaterin1964whosecandidacyshepromotedinseveralarticlesfortheobjectivistnewsletterin1964nathanielbrandenbegananaffairwiththeyoungactresspatreciascottwhomhelatermarriednathanielandbarbarabrandenkepttheaffairhiddenfromrandwhenshelearnedofitin1968thoughherromanticrelationshipwithbrandenhadalreadyendedrandterminatedherrelationshipwithbothbrandenswhichledtotheclosureofnbirandpublishedanarticleintheobjectivistrepudiatingnathanielbrandenfordishonestyandotherirrationalbehaviorinhisprivatelifebrandenlaterapologizedinaninterviewtoeverystudentofobjectivismforperpetuatingtheaynrandmystiqueandforcontributingtothatdreadfulatmosphereofintellectualrepressivenessthatpervadestheobjectivistmovement
aheavysmokerrandunderwentsurgeryforlungcancerin1974severalmoreofherclosestassociatespartedcompanywithherandduringthelate1970sheractivitieswithintheobjectivistmovementdeclinedespeciallyafterthedeathofherhusbandonnovember91979oneofherfinalprojectswasworkonanevercompletedtelevisionadaptationofatlasshrugged
randnamedherphilosophyobjectivismdescribingitsessenceastheconceptofmanasaheroicbeingwithhisownhappinessasthemoralpurposeofhislifewithproductiveachievementashisnoblestactivityandreasonashisonlyabsolutesheconsideredobjectivismasystematicphilosophyandlaidoutpositionsonmetaphysicsepistemologyethicspoliticalphilosophyandesthetics
inmetaphysicsrandembracedphilosophicalrealismandatheismandopposedanythingsheregardedasmysticismorsupernaturalismincludingallformsofreligioninepistemologysheconsideredallknowledgetobebasedonsenseperceptionthevalidityofwhichsheconsideredaxiomaticandreasonwhichshedescribedasthefacultythatidentifiesandintegratesthematerialprovidedbymanssensessherejectedallclaimsofnonperceptualoraprioriknowledgeincludinginstinctintuitionrevelationoranyformofjustknowinginherintroductiontoobjectivistepistemologyrandpresentedatheoryofconceptformationandendorsedtherejectionoftheanalyticsyntheticdichotomy
inethicsrandarguedforrationalegoismrationalselfinterestastheguidingmoralprincipleshesaidtheindividualshouldexistforhisownsakeneithersacrificinghimselftoothersnorsacrificingotherstohimselfshecontroversiallyreferredtoegoismasthevirtueofselfishnessinherbookofthattitleinwhichshepresentedhersolutiontotheisoughtproblembydescribingametaethicaltheorythatbasedmoralityintheneedsofmanssurvivalquamanshecondemnedethicalaltruismasincompatiblewiththerequirementsofhumanlifeandhappinessandheldthattheinitiationofforcewasevilandirrationalwritinginatlasshruggedthatforceandmindareopposites
randspoliticalphilosophyemphasizedindividualrightsincludingpropertyrightsandsheconsideredlaissezfairecapitalismtheonlymoralsocialsystembecauseinherviewitwastheonlysystembasedontheprotectionofthoserightsshewasafierceopponentofallformsofcollectivismandstatismincludingfascismcommunismsocialismandthewelfarestaterandbelievedrightsshouldbeenforcedbyaconstitutionallylimitedgovernmentalthoughherpoliticalviewsareoftenclassifiedasconservativeorlibertarianshepreferredthetermradicalforcapitalismsheworkedwithconservativesonpoliticalprojectsbutshedisagreedwiththemandtheywithheroverissuessuchasreligionandethicsshedenouncedlibertarianismwhichsheassociatedwithanarchismsherejectedanarchismasanaïvetheorybasedinsubjectivismthatcouldonlyleadtocollectivisminpracticesomenonobjectivistphilosopherssuchasnormanpbarryandchandrankukathas
randsestheticsdefinedartasaselectiverecreationofrealityaccordingtoanartistsmetaphysicalvaluejudgmentsaccordingtorandartallowsphilosophicalconceptstobepresentedinaconcreteformthatcanbeeasilygraspedtherebyfulfillinganeedofhumanconsciousnessasawritertheartformrandfocusedonmostcloselywasliteraturewheresheconsideredromanticismtobetheapproachthatmostaccuratelyreflectedtheexistenceofhumanfreewillshedescribedherownapproachtoliteratureasromanticrealism
randacknowledgedaristotleashergreatestinfluenceandremarkedthatinthehistoryofphilosophyshecouldonlyrecommendthreeasaristotleaquinasandaynrandshealsofoundearlyinspirationinfriedrichnietzscheandscholarshavefoundindicationsofhisinfluenceinearlynotesfromrandsjournalsinpassagesfromthefirsteditionofwethelivingwhichrandlaterrevisedandinheroverallwritingstylehoweverbythetimeshewrotethefountainheadrandhadturnedagainstnietzschesideasandtheextentofhisinfluenceonherevenduringherearlyyearsisdisputed
amongthephilosophersrandheldinparticulardisdainwasimmanuelkantwhomshereferredtoasamonsterandthemostevilmaninhistoryalthoughobjectivistphilosophersgeorgewalshandfredseddonhavearguedthatshemisinterpretedkantandexaggeratedtheirdifferences
in1976randsaidthathermostimportantcontributionstophilosophywerehertheoryofconcepts1ethicsand2discoveryinpoliticsthateviltheviolationofrightsconsistsoftheinitiationofforceshebelievedepistemologywasafoundationalbranchofphilosophyandconsideredtheadvocacyofreasontobethesinglemostsignificantaspectofherphilosophystatingiamnotprimarilyanadvocateofcapitalismbutofegoismandiamnotprimarilyanadvocateofegoismbutofreasonifonerecognizesthesupremacyofreasonandappliesitconsistentlyalltherestfollows
duringrandslifetimeherworkevokedbothextremepraiseandcondemnationrandsfirstnovelwethelivingwasadmiredbytheliterarycritichlmenckenherbroadwayplaynightofjanuary16thwasbothacriticalandpopularsuccessandthefountainheadwashailedbyareviewerinthenewyorktimesasmasterfulrandsnovelswerederidedbysomecriticswhentheywerefirstpublishedasbeinglongandmelodramatichowevertheybecamebestsellerslargelythroughwordofmouth
thefirstreviewsrandreceivedwerefornightofjanuary16threviewsoftheproductionwerelargelypositivebutrandconsideredevenpositivereviewstobeembarrassingbecauseofsignificantchangesmadetoherscriptbytheproducerher1938novellaanthemreceivedlittleattentionfromreviewersbothforitsfirstpublicationinenglandandforsubsequentreissues
randsfirstbestsellerthefountainheadreceivedfarfewerreviewsthanwethelivingandreviewersopinionsweremixedtherewasapositivereviewinthenewyorktimesthatrandgreatlyappreciatedthereviewercalledrandawriterofgreatpowerwhowrotebrilliantlybeautifullyandbitterlyandstatedthatyouwillnotbeabletoreadthismasterfulbookwithoutthinkingthroughsomeofthebasicconceptsofourtimetherewereotherpositivereviewsbutranddismissedmostofthemaseithernotunderstandinghermessageorasbeingfromunimportantpublicationssomenegativereviewsfocusedonthelengthofthenovelsuchasonethatcalleditawhaleofabookandanotherthatsaidanyonewhoistakeninbyitdeservesasternlectureonpaperrationingothernegativereviewscalledthecharactersunsympatheticandrandsstyleoffensivelypedestrian
rands1957novelatlasshruggedwaswidelyreviewedandmanyofthereviewswerestronglynegativeinthenationalreviewconservativeauthorwhittakerchamberscalledthebooksophomoricandremarkablysillyhedescribedthetoneofthebookasshrillnesswithoutreprieveandaccusedrandofsupportingthesamegodlesssystemasthesovietsclaimingfromalmostanypageofatlasshruggedavoicecanbeheardfrompainfulnecessitycommandingtoagaschambergoatlasshruggedreceivedpositivereviewsfromafewpublicationsincludingpraisefromthenotedbookreviewerjohnchamberlain
randsnonfictionreceivedfarfewerreviewsthanhernovelshadthetenorofthecriticismforherfirstnonfictionbookforthenewintellectualwassimilartothatforatlasshruggedwithphilosophersidneyhooklikeninghercertaintytothewayphilosophyiswritteninthesovietunionandauthorgorevidalcallingherviewpointnearlyperfectinitsimmoralityhersubsequentbooksgotprogressivelylessattentionfromreviewers
onthe100thanniversaryofrandsbirthin2005edwardrothsteinwritingforthenewyorktimesreferredtoherfictionalwritingasquaintutopianretrofantasyandprogrammaticneoromanticismofthemisunderstoodartistwhilecriticizinghercharactersisolatedrejectionofdemocraticsocietyin2007bookcriticleslieclarkdescribedherfictionasromancenovelswithapatinaofpseudophilosophyin2009gqscriticcolumnisttomcarsondescribedherbooksascapitalismsversionofmiddlebrowreligiousnovelssuchasbenhurandtheleftbehindseries
randscontemporaryadmirersincludedfellownovelistssuchasiralevinkaynoltesmithandlneilsmithandlaterwriterssuchaserikaholzerandterrygoodkindhavebeeninfluencedbyherotherartistswhohavecitedrandasanimportantinfluenceontheirlivesandthoughtincludecomicbookartiststeveditkoandmusicianneilpeartofrushrandprovidedapositiveviewofbusinessandinresponsebusinessexecutivesandentrepreneurshaveadmiredandpromotedherworkjohnallisonofbbamptandedsniderofcomcastspectacorhavefundedthepromotionofrandsideaswhilemarkcubanownerofthedallasmavericksandjohnpmackeyceoofwholefoodsamongothershavesaidtheyconsiderrandcrucialtotheirsuccess
randandherworkshavebeenreferredtoinavarietyofmediareferencestoherhaveappearedontelevisionshowsincludinganimatedsitcomsliveactioncomediesdramasandgameshowssheorcharactersbasedonherfigureprominentlyinpositiveandnegativelightsinliteraryandsciencefictionnovelsbyprominentamericanauthorsnickgillespieeditorinchiefofreasonhasremarkedthatrandsisatorturedimmortalityoneinwhichshesaslikelytobeapunchlineasaprotagonistandthatjibesatrandascoldandinhumanrunthroughthepopularculturetwomovieshavebeenmadeaboutrandslifea1997documentaryfilmwasnominatedfortheacademyawardfordocumentaryfeaturethepassionofaynranda1999televisionadaptationofthebookofthesamenamewonseveralawards
althoughsherejectedthelabelsconservativeandlibertarianrandhashadcontinuinginfluenceonrightwingpoliticsandlibertarianismjimpowellaseniorfellowatthecatoinstituteconsidersrandoneofthethreemostimportantwomenalongwithrosewilderlaneandisabelpatersonofmodernamericanlibertarianismanddavidnolanoneofthefoundersofthelibertarianpartystatedthatwithoutaynrandthelibertarianmovementwouldnotexistinhishistoryofthelibertarianmovementjournalistbriandohertydescribedherasthemostinfluentiallibertarianofthetwentiethcenturytothepublicatlarge
despiterandsuntraditionallyrepublicanstanceasaprochoiceatheistthepoliticalfigureswhociterandasaninfluencearemostoftenconservativeorlibertarianmembersoftheunitedstatesrepublicanpartya1987articleinthenewyorktimesreferredtoherasthereaganadministrationsnovelistlaureaterepublicancongressmenandconservativepunditshaveacknowledgedherinfluenceontheirlivesandrecommendedhernovels
duringrandslifetimeherworkreceivedlittleattentionfromacademicscholarsafewarticlesaboutrandsideasappearedinacademicjournalspriortoherdeathin1982manyoftheminthepersonalistoneofthesewasontherandianargumentbyrespectedlibertarianphilosopherrobertnozickwhoarguedthathermetaethicalargumentisunsoundandfailstosolvetheisoughtproblemposedbydavidhumesomeresponsestonozickbyotheracademicphilosopherswerealsopublishedinthepersonalistarguingthatnozickmisstatedrandscase
sincerandsdeathin1982interestinherworkhasgraduallyincreasedhistorianjenniferburnshasidentifiedthreeoverlappingwavesofscholarlyinterestinrandthemostrecentofwhichisanexplosionofscholarshipinthe2000showeverfewuniversitiescurrentlyincluderandorobjectivismasaphilosophicalspecialtyorresearchareawithmanyliteratureandphilosophydepartmentsdismissingherasapopculturephenomenonratherthanasubjectforseriousstudy
academicswithaninterestinrandsuchasgladsteinsciabarraallangotthelfedwinalockeandtarasmithhavetaughtherworkinacademicinstitutionssciabarracoeditsthejournalofaynrandstudiesanonpartisanpeerreviewedjournaldedicatedtothestudyofrandsphilosophicalandliteraryworkin1987gotthelfhelpedfoundtheaynrandsocietyandhasbeenactiveinsponsoringseminarsaboutrandandherideassmithhaswrittenseveralacademicbooksandpapersonrandsideasincludingaynrandsnormativeethicsthevirtuousegoistavolumeonrandsethicaltheorypublishedbycambridgeuniversitypressrandsideashavealsobeenmadesubjectsofstudyatclemsonanddukeuniversitiesscholarsofenglishandamericanliteraturehavelargelyignoredherworkalthoughattentiontoherliteraryworkhasincreasedsincethe1990s
someacademicphilosophershavecriticizedrandforwhattheyconsiderherlackofrigorandlimitedunderstandingofphilosophicalsubjectmatterchrismatthewsciabarrahascalledintoquestionthemotivesofsomeofrandscriticsbecauseofwhathecallstheunusualhostilityoftheircriticismssciabarrawritestheleftwasinfuriatedbyheranticommunistprocapitalistpoliticswhereastherightwasdisgustedwithheratheismandcivillibertarianism
randscholarsdouglasdenuylanddouglasbrasmussenwhilestressingtheimportanceandoriginalityofherthoughtdescribeherstyleasliteraryhyperbolicandemotionalphilosopherjackwheelersaysthatdespitetheincessantbombastandcontinuousventingofrandianragerandsethicsareamostimmenseachievementthestudyofwhichisvastlymorefruitfulthananyotherincontemporarythoughtintheliteraryencyclopediaentryforrandwrittenin2001johnlewisdeclaredthatrandwrotethemostintellectuallychallengingfictionofhergenerationina1999interviewinthechronicleofhighereducationrandscholarchrismatthewsciabarracommentediknowtheylaughatrandwhileforecastingagrowthofinterestinherworkintheacademiccommunity
in1985randsheirleonardpeikoffestablishedtheaynrandinstituteanonprofitorganizationdedicatedtospreadingrandsideasandpromotingherworksin1990philosopherdavidkelleyfoundedtheinstituteforobjectiviststudiesnowknownastheatlassocietyin2001historianjohnmccaskeyorganizedtheanthemfoundationforobjectivistscholarshipwhichprovidesgrantsforscholarlyworkonobjectivisminacademiathecharitablefoundationofbbamptcorporationhasalsogivengrantsforteachingrandsideasorworkstheuniversityoftexasataustintheuniversityofpittsburghanduniversityofnorthcarolinaatchapelhillareamongtheschoolsthathavereceivedgrantsinsomecasesthesegrantshavebeencontroversialduetotheirrequiringresearchorteachingrelatedtorand
alainconnesborn1april1947isafrenchmathematiciancurrentlyprofessoratthecollègedefranceihésandvanderbiltuniversity
alainconnesisoneoftheleadingspecialistsonoperatoralgebrasinhisearlyworkonvonneumannalgebrasinthe1970shesucceededinobtainingthealmostcompleteclassificationofinjectivefactorsfollowingthishemadecontributionsinoperatorktheoryandindextheorywhichculminatedinthe
conneshasappliedhisworkinareasofmathematicsandtheoreticalphysicsincludingnumbertheorydifferentialgeometryandparticlephysics
conneswasawardedthefieldsmedalin1982thecrafoordprizein2001andthegoldmedalofthecnrsin2004heisamemberofthefrenchacademyofsciencesandseveralforeignacademiesandsocietiesincludingthedanishacademyofsciencesnorwegianacademyofsciencesrussianacademyofsciencesandusnationalacademyofsciences
allandwanapril31885december281981wasapioneeringcanadianbornamericanmotionpicturedirectorproducerandscreenwriter
bornjosephaloysiusdwanintorontoontariocanadadwanmovedwithhisfamilytotheunitedstateswhenhewas11yearsoldattheuniversityofnotredamehetrainedasanengineerandbeganworkingforalightingcompanyinchicagohoweverhehadastronginterestinthefledglingmotionpictureindustryandwhenessanaystudiosofferedhimtheopportunitytobecomeascriptwriterhetookthejobatthattimesomeoftheeastcoastmoviemakersbegantospendwintersincaliforniawheretheclimateallowedthemtocontinueproductionsrequiringwarmweathersoonanumberofmoviecompaniesworkedthereyearroundandin1911dwanbeganworkingparttimeinhollywoodwhilestillinnewyorkin1917hewasthefoundingpresidentoftheeastcoastchapterofthemotionpicturedirectorsassociation
dwanoperatedflyingastudiosinlamesacaliforniafromaugust1911tojuly1912flyingawasoneofthefirstmotionpicturesstudiosincaliforniahistoryonaugust122011aplaquewasunveiledonthewolffbuildingatthirdaveandlamesablcommemoratingdwanandtheflyingastudiosoriginsinlamesacalifornia
aftermakingaseriesofwesternsandcomediesdwandirectedfellowcanadianmarypickfordinseveralverysuccessfulmoviesaswellasherhusbanddouglasfairbanksnotablyintheacclaimed1922robinhood
followingtheintroductionofthetalkiesin1937hedirectedchildstarshirleytempleinheidiandrebeccaofsunnybrookfarmthefollowingyear
dwanalsohelpedlaunchthecareeroftwootherverysuccessfulhollywooddirectorsvictorflemingwhowentontodirectthethewizardofoz1939filmandgonewiththewindfilmandmarshallneilanwhobecameanactordirectorwriterandproducer
overhislongandsuccessfulcareerspanningover50yearshedirectedover400motionpicturesmanyofthemhighlyacclaimedsuchasthe1949boxofficesmashsandsofiwojimahedirectedhislastmoviein1961
hediedinlosangelesattheageofninetysixandisinterredinthesanfernandomissioncemeterymissionhillscalifornia
allandwanhasastaronthehollywoodwalkoffameat6263hollywoodboulevardinhollywood
inalgeriatamazighthasbeenconstitutionallyrecognizedasanationallanguagethealgeriangovernmentrecognizesthatthevarietiesofberberlanguagesinalgeriaarenationalandregionallanguageswhichmustbepreserevedalgeriasofficialnameinberberisasfollows
algeriaaljazāirberberandalgerianarabicdzayerorldzayerofficiallythepeoplesdemocraticrepublicofalgeriaaljumhuriyahaljazairiyahaddimuqratiyahashshabiyahalsoformallyreferredtoasthedemocraticandpopularrepublicofalgeriaisacountryinthemaghrebregionofnorthwestafricawithalgiersasitscapital
intermsoflandareaitisthelargestcountryinafricathearabworldandofthecountriesborderingthemediterraneanseaitisalsothetenthlargestcountryintheworldthecountryisborderedinthenortheastbytunisiaintheeastbylibyainthewestbymoroccointhesouthwestbywesternsaharamauritaniaandmaliinthesoutheastbynigerandinthenorthbythemediterraneanseaitssizeisalmostwithanestimatedpopulationof363millionasof2011
algeriaisamemberoftheafricanunionthearableagueopecandtheunitednationsthecountryisalsoafoundingmemberofthearabmaghrebunion
theindigenouspeoplesofnorthernafricaareadistinctnativepopulationtheberbers
theottomansestablishedalgeriasmodernboundariesinthenorthandmadeitscoastabasefortheottomancorsairstheirprivateeringpeakedinalgiersinthe17thcenturypiracyonamericanvesselsinthemediterraneanresultedinthefirst18011805andsecondbarbarywars1815withtheunitedstatesthepiratesforcedthepeopleontheshipstheycapturedintoslaverywhenthepiratesattackedcoastalvillagesinsouthernandwesterneuropetheinhabitantswereforcedintothearabslavetrade
in1558barbarycorsairscapturedthetownofciutadellaminorcadestroyeditslaughteredtheinhabitantsandtook3000survivorstoistanbulasslavesin1563turgutreislandedontheshoresoftheprovinceofgranadaspainandcapturedcoastalsettlementsintheareasuchasalmuñécaralongwith4000prisonersbarbarypiratesoftenattackedthebalearicislandsandinresponsemanycoastalwatchtowersandfortifiedchurcheswereerectedthethreatwassoseverethattheislandofformenterabecameuninhabited
between1609to1616englandlost466merchantshipstobarbarypiratesinthe19thcenturybarbarypirateswouldcaptureshipsandenslavethecrewlateramericanshipswereattackedduringthisperiodthepiratesforgedaffiliationswithcaribbeanpowerspayingalicensetaxinexchangeforsafeharboroftheirvesselsoneamericanslavereportedthatthealgerianshadenslaved130americanseameninthemediterraneanandatlanticfrom1785to1793
plaguehadrepeatedlystruckthecitiesofnorthafricaalgierslostfrom30000to50000inhabitantstotheplaguein162021andagainin16545716651691and174042
in1954thenationalliberationfrontflnlaunchedthealgerianwarofindependencewhichwasaguerrillacampaignbytheendofthewarnewlyelectedfrenchpresidentcharlesdegaulleheldaplebisciteofferingalgeriansthreeoptionsinafamousspeech4june1958inalgiersdegaulleproclaimedinfrontofavastcrowdofpiedsnoirsjevousaicomprisihaveunderstoodyoumostpiedsnoirsthenbelievedthatdegaullemeantthatalgeriawouldremainfrenchthepollresultedinalandslidevoteforcompleteindependencefromfranceoveronemillionpeopletenpercentofthepopulationthenfledthecountryforfranceinjustafewmonthsinmid1962theseincludedmostofthe1025000piedsnoirsaswellas81000harkisprofrenchalgeriansservinginthefrencharmyinthedaysprecedingthebloodyconflictagroupofalgerianrebelsopenedfireonamarketplaceinorankillingnumerousinnocentciviliansmostlywomenitisestimatedthatsomewherebetween50000and150000harkisandtheirdependentswerekilledbytheflnorbylynchmobsinalgeria
morethan160000peoplewerekilledbetween17january1992andjune2002invariousterroristattackswhichwereclaimedbythearmedislamicgroupandislamicsalvationarmyhoweverelectionsresumedin1995andafter1998thewarwanedon27april1999afteraseriesofshorttermleadersrepresentingthemilitaryabdelazizbouteflikathecurrentpresidentwaschosenbythearmy
followingawaveofprotestsinthewakeofpopularuprisingsintunisiaegyptandlibyaalgeriaofficiallyliftedits19yearoldstateofemergencyon24february2011thecountryscouncilofministersapprovedtherepealtwodaysprior
thehighestofficialtemperaturewasatinsalah
rainfallisfairlyabundantalongthecoastalpartofthetellatlasrangingfromannuallytheamountofprecipitationincreasingfromwesttoeastprecipitationisheaviestinthenorthernpartofeasternalgeriawhereitreachesasmuchasinsomeyears
algeriaisanauthoritarianregimeaccordingtothedemocracyindex2010thefreedomofthepress2009reportgivesitratingnotfree
theheadofstateisthepresidentofalgeriawhoiselectedforafiveyeartermthepresidentwasformerlylimitedtotwofiveyeartermsbutaconstitutionalamendmentpassedbytheparliamenton11november2008removedthislimitationalgeriahasuniversalsuffrageat18yearsofagethepresidentistheheadofthearmythecouncilofministersthehighsecuritycouncilheappointstheprimeministerwhoisalsotheheadofgovernment
thealgerianparliamentisbicameralconsistingofalowerchamberthenationalpeoplesassemblyapnwith380membersandanupperchamberthecouncilofnationwith144memberstheapniselectedeveryfiveyears
underthe1976constitutionasmodified1979andamendedin19881989and1996algeriaisamultipartystatetheministryoftheinteriormustapproveallpartiestodatealgeriahashadmorethan40legalpoliticalpartiesaccordingtotheconstitutionnopoliticalassociationmaybeformedifitisbasedondifferencesinreligionlanguageracegenderprofessionorregioninadditionpoliticalcampaignsmustbeexemptfromtheaforementionedsubjects
totalmilitarypersonnelinclude147000active150000reserveand187000paramilitarystaff2008estimateserviceinthemilitaryiscompulsoryformenaged1930foratotalof18monthssixtrainingand12incivilprojectsthetotalmilitaryexpenditurein2006wasestimatedvariouslyat27ofgdp3096millionor33ofgdp
thealgerianairforcesignedadealwithrussiain2007topurchase49mig29smtand6mig29ubtatanestimated19billiontheyalsoagreedtoreturnoldaircraftpurchasedfromtheformerussrrussiaisalsobuildingtwo636typedieselsubmarinesforalgeria
inoctober2009algeriacancelledaweaponsdealwithfranceoverthepossibilityofinclusionofisraelipartsinthem
tensionsbetweenalgeriaandmoroccoinrelationtothewesternsaharahavebeenanobstacletotighteningthearabmaghrebunionwhichwasnominallyestablishedin1989butwhichhascarriedlittlepracticalweight
theadministrativedivisionshavechangedseveraltimessinceindependencewhenintroducingnewprovincesthenumbersofoldprovincesarekepthencethenonalphabeticalorderwiththeirofficialnumberscurrentlysince1983theyare
thegovernmentscontinuedeffortstodiversifytheeconomybyattractingforeignanddomesticinvestmentoutsidetheenergysectorhavehadlittlesuccessinreducinghighunemploymentandimprovinglivingstandardshoweverin2001thegovernmentsignedanassociationtreatywiththeeuropeanunionthatwilleventuallylowertariffsandincreasetradeinmarch2006russiaagreedtoerase474billionofalgeriassovieteradebtduringavisitbyrussianpresidentvladimirputintothecountrythefirstbyarussianleaderinhalfacenturyinreturnalgerianpresidentabdelazizbouteflikaagreedtobuy75billionworthofcombatplanesairdefensesystemsandotherarmsfromrussiaaccordingtotheheadofrussiasstatearmsexporterrosoboronexport
algeriahasalwaysbeennotedforthefertilityofitssoil14percentofitslaborforceareemployedintheagriculturalsector
morethanaredevotedtothecultivationofcerealgrainsthetellatlasisthegraingrowinglandduringthetimeoffrenchruleitsproductivitywasincreasedsubstantiallybythesinkingofartesianwellsindistrictswhichonlyrequiredwatertomakethemfertileofthecropsraisedwheatbarleyandoatsaretheprincipalcerealsagreatvarietyofvegetablesandfruitsespeciallycitrusproductsareexportedalgeriaalsoexportsfigsdatesespartograssandcork
mostalgerianshavearabberberandtoalesserextentsoutherneuropeanandsubsaharanafricanancestryfurthermorethecountryhasadiversepopulationrangingfromlightskinnedgrayeyedchaouiandblueeyedkabylesintheatlasmountainstoverydarkskinnedpopulationsinthesaharaegthetuaregsandgnawadescendantsofandalusianrefugeesarealsopresentinthepopulationofalgiersandothercities
linguisticallyapproximately83percentofalgeriansspeakalgerianarabicwhileapproximately15percentspeakberberdialectsmainlyfoundinthekabyleandchaouiregionsfrenchiswidelyunderstoodandstandardarabicfoshaaistaughttoandunderstoodbymostalgerianarabicspeakingyouth
europeansaccountforlessthanonepercentofthepopulationinhabitingalmostexclusivelythelargestmetropolitanareashoweverduringthecolonialperiodtherewasalarge152percentin1962europeanpopulationconsistingprimarilyoffrenchpeopleinadditiontospaniardsinthewestofthecountryitaliansandmalteseintheeastandothereuropeanssuchasgreeksinsmallernumbersknownaspiedsnoirseuropeancolonistswereconcentratedonthecoastandformedamajorityofthepopulationoforan60percentandimportantproportionsinotherlargecitiesincludingalgiersandannabaalmostallofthispopulationleftduringorimmediatelyafterthecountrysindependencefromfrance
womenmakeup70percentofthecountryslawyersand60percentofitsjudgesandalsodominatethefieldofmedicineincreasinglywomenarecontributingmoretohouseholdincomethanmensixtypercentofuniversitystudentsarewomenaccordingtouniversityresearchers
itisestimatedthat95700refugeesandasylumseekershavesoughtrefugeinalgeriathisincludesroughly90000frommoroccoand4100frompalestineanestimated46000sahrawisfromwesternsaharaliveinrefugeecampsinthealgerianpartofthesaharadesert35000chinesemigrantworkerslivedinalgeria
almostallalgeriansareberberinoriginnotarabsthearabethnicpresenceinthecountryismainlyduetothephoeniciansandhilalliensmigratorymovements3rdcenturybcand11thcenturyrespectivelyhoweverthemajorityofarabizedberberclaimsanarabheritagewhichisaconsequenceofthearabnationalismoftheearly20thcenturytheberberspeakerslivemostlyinfourmajorcitiesbatnatiziouzoughardaiaandtamanrassetcapitalofthetuaregpeopleanotherhistoricalmigratorymovementsthatmadetheactualalgerianswasthevandalicinvasionofthe5thcenturyandthemediterraneantradeofthe1619century
islamisthepredominantreligionwith99percentofthepopulation
algeriahadanimportantjewishcommunityuntilthe1960snearlyallofthiscommunityemigratedfollowingthecountrysindependencealthoughaverysmallnumberofalgerianjewscontinuetoliveinalgiers
in2002algeriahadinadequatenumbersofphysicians113per1000peoplenurses223per1000peopleanddentists031per1000peopleaccesstoimprovedwatersourceswaslimitedto92percentofthepopulationinurbanareasand80percentofthepopulationinruralareassome99percentofalgerianslivinginurbanareasbutonly82percentofthoselivinginruralareashadaccesstoimprovedsanitationaccordingtotheworldbankalgeriaismakingprogresstowarditsgoalofreducingbyhalfthenumberofpeoplewithoutsustainableaccesstoimproveddrinkingwaterandbasicsanitationby2015givenalgeriasyoungpopulationpolicyfavorspreventivehealthcareandclinicsoverhospitalsinkeepingwiththispolicythegovernmentmaintainsanimmunizationprogramhoweverpoorsanitationanduncleanwaterstillcausetuberculosishepatitismeaslestyphoidfevercholeraanddysenterythepoorgenerallyreceivehealthcarefreeofcharge
educationisofficiallycompulsoryforchildrenbetweentheagesofsixand15approximately5oftheadultpopulationofthecountryisilliterate
modernalgerianliteraturesplitbetweenarabickabyleandfrenchhasbeenstronglyinfluencedbythecountrysrecenthistoryfamousnovelistsofthe20thcenturyincludemohammeddibalbertcamuskatebyacineandahlammosteghanemiwhileassiadjebariswidelytranslatedamongtheimportantnovelistsofthe1980swererachidmimounilatervicepresidentofamnestyinternationalandtahardjaoutmurderedbyanislamistgroupin1993forhissecularistviews
highestpointinthecountry3003m
thereareseveralunescoworldheritagesitesinalgeriaincludingalqalaofbenihammadthefirstcapitalofthehammadidempiretipasaaphoenicianandlaterromantownanddjémilaandtimgadbothromanruinsmzabvalleyalimestonevalleycontainingalargeurbanizedoasisalsothecasbahofalgiersisanimportantcitadeltheonlynaturalworldheritagesitesisthetassilinajjeramountainrange
algeriaisamemberofthefollowingorganizations
thisisalistofcharactersinaynrandsnovelatlasshrugged
thefollowingaremajorcharactersfromthenovelcharactersarelistedasmajoriftheymeetoneofthefollowingcriteria
dagnyhasthreeromanticrelationshipseachwithamanofabilityfranciscodanconiahankreardenandjohngaltgaltmarksthepinnacleofeverythingdagnyseeksintheworldandisthekindofmanalludedtoinheryouthwhensheimaginesamanstandingoffinthedistanceattheendofagreatsetofrailroadtracksandallherstruggles
theessentialdramaofdagnyscharacterisherstruggletoreconcilethelifeshelivesandtherailroadwhichsheloveswiththemoralcodeofthosewhowishtodestroyitshebelievesthesedestroyerssimplywanttoheapburdensuponherforthesakeofotherswhichshehastheabilitytocarrylikehankshebelievestheywanttolivebutaretoostupidandincompetenttorealizehowtheirdutiesandaltruisticprojectsimpedethatgoalitisnotuntilsheseesthemanmostimportanttoherintheworldjohngaltstrappedtoatorturemachineabouttobekilledbythelooterswhorecognizetoothatheistheonlymanwhocansavethemfromeconomiccollapsethatsherealizesthatthemoralcodeofthelootersisoneofdeaththeyrecognizewhatisgoodandnecessaryforlifebutwishtodestroyitanyway
sheisatypicalrandianheroinesimilartodominiquefranconthefountainheadorkiraargounovawetheliving
franciscodanconiaisoneofthecentralcharactersinatlasshruggedandownerbyinheritanceoftheworldslargestcopperminingempireheisachildhoodfriendandthefirstloveofdagnytaggart
achildprodigyofexceptionaltalentsfranciscowasdubbedtheclimaxofthedanconialineanalreadyprestigiousfamilyofskilledindustrialistsheattendedpatrickhenryuniversityandwasaclassmateofjohngaltandragnardanneskjöldandstudentofbothhughakstonandrobertstadlerhebeganworkingatayoungagewhilestillinschoolprovingthathecouldhavemadeasuccessfulcareeronhisownmeritswithouttheaidofhisfamilyswealthandpower
franciscoisoneofthestrikersandisslowlydestroyingthedanconiaempiretoputitoutoftheraidersreachhisactionsweredesignedbothtotraplootersintorelyinguponhisworthlessventuresinordertodisrupttheirschemesandtotrytoshowtheinevitableconsequencesoflootingheadoptedthepersonaofaworthlessplayboybywhichheisknowntotheworldasaneffectivecoverhoweverheisforcedtogiveupdagnyknowingthatshewouldnotbereadytojointhestrikersheremainsdeeplyinlovewithherthroughoutthebookwhilealsobeingagoodandloyalfriendofherothertwolovershankreardenandjohngalt
hisfullnameisfranciscodomingocarlosandressebastiandanconia
theenigmaticjohngaltistheprimarymaleheroofatlasshruggedheinitiallyappearsasanunnamedmenialworkerfortaggarttranscontinentalwhooftendineswitheddiewillersintheemployeescafeteriaandleadseddietorevealimportantinformationaboutdagnytaggartandtaggarttranscontinentalonlyeddiessideoftheirconversationsisgiveninthenoveleddietellshimwhichsuppliersandcontractorsdagnyismostdependentonthesemenareconsistentlythenexttodisappearlaterinthenovelthereaderdiscoversthisworkerstrueidentity
henryalsoknownashankisoneofthecentralcharactersinatlasshruggedlikemanyofrandscapitalistcharactersheisaselfmademanheownsthemostimportantsteelcompanyintheunitedstatesheinventsreardenmetalanalloystrongerthansteelwithsimilarpropertiestostainlesssteelhelivesinphiladelphiawithhiswifelillianhisbrotherphilipandhiselderlymotherallofwhomhesupports
hankreardenknowssomethingiswrongwiththeworldbutheisunabletodefinetheproblemhisfriendfranciscodanconiahelpshimunderstandandbythismechanismthereaderisalsopreparedtounderstandthesecretwhenitisrevealedexplicitlyingaltsspeechreardenalsoservestoillustraterandstheoryofsexlillianreardencannotappreciatehankreardensvirtuesandsheisportrayedasbeingdisgustedbysexdagnytaggartclearlydoesappreciatereardensvirtuesandthisappreciationevolvesintosexualdesirereardenistornbecauseheacceptsthepremisesofthetraditionalviewofsexasalowerinstinctbutherespondssexuallytodagnywhorepresentshishighestvaluesreardenstrugglestoresolvethisinternalconflictandindoingsoillustratesrandssexualtheory
oneoftheoriginalstrikersheisnowworldfamousasapirateragnarattendedpatrickhenryuniversityandbecamefriendswithjohngaltandfranciscodanconiawhilestudyingunderhughakstonandrobertstadlerdanneskjöldseizesreliefshipsthatarebeingsentfromtheunitedstatestothepeoplesstatesofeuropeasthenovelprogressesdanneskjöldbeginstobecomeactiveinamericanwatersdanneskjöldsactionistorestoretoothercreativepeoplethemoneyingoldwhichwasunjustlytakenawayfromthemspecificallytheirincometaxpaymentsheexplainsthisisnotaltruismhismotivationistoensurethatoncethoseespousinggaltsphilosophyarerestoredtotheirrightfulplaceinsocietytheywillhaveenoughcapitaltorebuildtheworld
keptinthebackgroundformuchofthebookdanneskjöldmakesapersonalappearancewhenheriskshislifetomeethankreardeninthenightandhandhimabarofgoldasanadvancepaymenttoencouragereardentopersevereinhisincreasinglydifficultsituationdanneskjöldismarriedtotheactresskayludlowtheirrelationshipiskepthiddenfromtheoutsideworldwhichonlyknowsofludlowasafilmstarwhoretiredanddroppedoutofsightitismentionedthatsomeofthestrikershavestrongreservationsabouthiswayofconductingthecommonstruggle
accordingtobarbarabrandenwhowascloselyassociatedwithrandatthetimethebookwaswrittenthereweresectionswrittendescribingdanneskjöldsadventuresatseawhichwerecutfromthefinalpublishedtextinthepublishedbookdanneskjöldisalwaysseenthroughtheeyesofothersdagnytaggartorhankreardenexceptforabriefparagraphintheverylastchapter
thepresidentoftaggarttranscontinentalandthebooksmostimportantantagonisttaggartisanexpertinfluencepeddlerwhoishoweverincapableofmakingoperationaldecisionsonhisownhereliesonhissisterdagnytaggarttoactuallyruntherailroadbutnonethelessopposesherinalmosteveryendeavorinasenseheistheantithesisofdagny
asthenovelprogressesthemoralphilosophyofthelootersisrevealeditisacodeofstagnationthegoalofthiscodeistonotexisttonotmoveforwardtobecomeazerotaggartstrugglestoremainunawarethatthisishisgoalhemaintainshispretensethathewantstoliveandbecomeshorrifiedwheneverhismindstartstograspthetruthabouthimselfthiscontradictionleadstotherecurringabsurdityofhislifethedesiretodestroythoseonwhomhislifedependsandthehorrorthathewillsucceedatthisinthefinalchaptersofthenovelhesuffersacompletementalbreakdownuponrealizingthathecannolongerdeceivehimselfinthisrespect
theunsupportivewifeofhankreardentheyhavebeenmarriedeightyearsasthenovelbeginslillianisafrigidmoocherwhoseekstodestroyherhusbandshecomparesbeingreardenswifewithowningtheworldsmostpowerfulhorsesinceshecannotcomfortablyrideahorsethatgoestoofastshemustbridleitdowntoherlevelevenifthatmeansitwillneverreachitsfullpotentialanditspowerwillbegrievouslywastedlilliantoleratessexwithherhusbandonlybecausesheisrealisticenoughtoknowheisjustabrutewhorequiressatisfactionofhisbruteinstinctssheindicatesthatsheabhorsfranciscodanconiabecauseshebelievesheisasexualadventurer
ashermotivesbecomemoreclearlillianisfoundtosharethesentimentsofmanyothermoochersandtheirworshipofdestructionheractionsareexplainedasthedesiretodestroyachievementinthefalsebeliefthatsuchanactbestowsagreatnesstothedestroyerequaltotheaccomplishmentdestroyedsheseeksthentoruinreardeninanefforttoproveherownvalue
lillianachieveshergoaltodestroyreardensbusinesswhenshepassesoninformationtojamestaggartaboutherhusbandsaffairthisinformationisusedtopersuadereardentosignthegiftcertificatewhichdeliversallthepropertyrightsofreardenmetaltothelootersandtherebydestroyshisbusinesslilliandiscoversthatshecanaccomplishhergoaltodestroythebusinessbutshecanneitherachievethegreatnessshedesiresnorhergoaltodestroyhankscharactersheusesjamestaggartforsexasvictoryandrevengeagainsthankanddagnythisdoesgiveherthesatisfactionshedesiresandshecontinuestomanipulatehankuntilheisfinallyleavesherandjoinsgaltsstrikers
ferrisisabiologistwhoworksascoordinatoratthestatescienceinstituteheuseshispositiontheretoderidereasonandproductiveachievementandpublishesabookentitledwhydoyouthinkyouthinkheclashesonseveraloccasionswithhankreardenandtwiceattemptstoblackmailreardenintogivingupreardenmetalheisalsooneofthegroupoflooterswhotriestogetreardentoagreetothesteelunificationplanferrishoststhedemonstrationoftheprojectxweaponandisthecreatoroftheferrispersuaderatorturemachinewhenjohngaltiscapturedbythelootersferrisusesthedeviceongaltbutitbreaksdownbeforeextractingtheinformationferriswantsfromgaltferrisrepresentsthegroupwhichusesbruteforceontheheroestoachievetheendsofthelooters
aformerprofessoratpatrickhenryuniversitymentortofranciscodanconiajohngaltandragnardanneskjöldhehassincebecomeaselloutonewhohadgreatpromisebutsquandereditforsocialapprovaltothedetrimentofthefreeheworksatthestatescienceinstitutewhereallhisinventionsarepervertedforusebythemilitaryincludingtheinstrumentofhisdemiseprojectxxylophonethecharacterwasinpartmodeledonjrobertoppenheimerwhomrandhadinterviewedforanearlierprojectandhispartinthecreationofnuclearweaponstohisformerstudentgaltstadlerrepresentstheepitomeofhumanevilasthemanwhoknewbetterbutchosenottoactforthegood
theincompetentandtreacherouslobbyistwhomhankreardenreluctantlyemploysinwashingtonlaterinthenovelhebecomesthecountryseconomicdictator
thefollowingsecondarycharactersalsoappearinthenovel
anthropologyisthestudyofhumanityithasoriginsinthehumanitiesthenaturalsciencesandthesocialsciencesthetermanthropologyisfromthegreekanthrōposmanunderstoodtomeanmankindorhumanityandlogiaλογίαdiscourseorstudyandwasfirstusedin1501bygermanphilosophermagnushundt
intheunitedstatescontemporaryanthropologyistypicallydividedintofoursubfieldsculturalanthropologyalsoknownassocioculturalanthropologyarchaeologylinguisticanthropologyandphysicalorbiologicalanthropologythefourfieldapproachtoanthropologyisreflectedinmanyamericanundergraduatetextbooksandanthropologyprogramsatuniversitiesintheunitedkingdomandmuchofeuropethesesubfieldsarefrequentlyhousedinseparatedepartmentsandareseenasdistinctdisciplineswiththefieldcorrespondingtoamericansocioculturalanthropologybeingsimplyanthropology
thesocialandculturalsubfieldhasbeenheavilyinfluencedbystructuralistandpostmoderntheoriesaswellasashifttowardtheanalysisofmodernsocietiesanarenamoretypicallyintheremitofsociologistsduringthe1970sand1990stherewasanepistemologicalshiftawayfromthepositivisttraditionsthathadlargelyinformedthedisciplineduringthisshiftenduringquestionsaboutthenatureandproductionofknowledgecametooccupyacentralplaceinculturalandsocialanthropologyincontrastarchaeologyandbiologicalanthropologyremainedlargelypositivistduetothisdifferenceinepistemologyanthropologyasadisciplinehaslackedcohesionoverthelastseveraldecades
anthropologyistraditionallydividedintofoursubfieldseachwithitsownfurtherbranchesbiologicalorphysicalanthropologysocialanthropologyorculturalanthropologyarchaeologyandanthropologicallinguisticsthesefieldsfrequentlyoverlapbuttendtousedifferentmethodologiesandtechniques
biologicalanthropologyorphysicalanthropologyfocusesonthestudyofhumanpopulationusinganevolutionaryframeworkbiologicalanthropologistshavetheorizedabouthowtheglobehasbecomepopulatedwithhumansegtheoutofafricaandmultiregionalevolutiondebateaswellastriedtoexplaingeographicalhumanvariationandracemanybiologicalanthropologistsstudyingmodernhumanpopulationsidentifytheirfieldashumanecologyitselflinkedtosociobiologyhumanecologyusesevolutionarytheorytounderstandphenomenaamongcontemporaryhumanpopulationsanotherlargesectorofbiologicalanthropologyisprimatologywhereanthropologistsfocusonunderstandingotherprimatepopulationsintermsofmethodologyprimatologistsborrowheavilyfromfieldbiologyandecologyintheirresearch
culturalanthropologyisalsocalledsocioculturalanthropologyorsocialanthropologyespeciallyintheunitedkingdomitisthestudyofcultureandisbasedmainlyonethnographyethnographycanrefertobothamethodologyandaproductofresearchnamelyamonographorbookethnographyisagroundedinductivemethodthatheavilyreliesonparticipantobservationethnologyinvolvesthesystematiccomparisonofdifferentculturestheprocessofparticipantobservationcanbeespeciallyhelpfultounderstandingaculturefromanemicpointofviewwhichwouldotherwisebeunattainablebysimplyreadingfromabookinsomeeuropeancountriesallculturalanthropologyisknownasethnologyatermcoinedanddefinedbyadamfkollárin1783
thestudyofkinshipandsocialorganizationisacentralfocusofculturalanthropologyaskinshipisahumanuniversalculturalanthropologyalsocoverseconomicandpoliticalorganizationlawandconflictresolutionpatternsofconsumptionandexchangematerialculturetechnologyinfrastructuregenderrelationsethnicitychildrearingandsocializationreligionmythsymbolsvaluesetiquetteworldviewsportsmusicnutritionrecreationgamesfoodfestivalsandlanguagewhichisalsotheobjectofstudyinlinguisticanthropology
archaeologyisthestudyofhumanmaterialcultureincludingbothartifactsolderpiecesofhumanculturecarefullygatheredinsitumuseumpiecesandmoderngarbagearchaeologistsworkcloselywithbiologicalanthropologistsarthistoriansphysicslaboratoriesfordatingandmuseumstheyarechargedwithpreservingtheresultsoftheirexcavationsandareoftenfoundinmuseumsinthetypicalscenarioarchaeologistsareassociatedwithdigsorexcavationoflayersofancientsites
archaeologistssubdividetimeintoculturalperiodsbasedonlonglastingartifactsthepaleolithictheneolithicthebronzeagewhicharefurthersubdividedaccordingtoartifacttraditionsandcultureregionsuchastheoldowanorthegravettianinthiswayarchaeologistsprovideavastframeofreferencefortheplaceshumanbeingshavetraveledtheirwaysofmakingalivingandtheirdemographicsarchaeologistsalsoinvestigatenutritionsymbolizationartsystemsofwritingandotherphysicalremnantsofhumanculturalactivity
linguisticanthropologyalsocalledanthropologicallinguisticsseekstounderstandtheprocessesofhumancommunicationsverbalandnonverbalvariationinlanguageacrosstimeandspacethesocialusesoflanguageandtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureitisthebranchofanthropologythatbringslinguisticmethodstobearonanthropologicalproblemslinkingtheanalysisoflinguisticformsandprocessestotheinterpretationofsocioculturalprocesseslinguisticanthropologistsoftendrawonrelatedfieldsincludingsociolinguisticspragmaticscognitivelinguisticssemioticsdiscourseanalysisandnarrativeanalysis
linguisticanthropologyisdividedintoitsownsubfieldsdescriptivelinguisticstheconstructionofgrammarsandlexiconsforunstudiedlanguageshistoricallinguisticsincludingthereconstructionofpastlanguagesfromwhichourcurrentlanguageshavedescendedethnolinguisticsthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureandsociolinguisticsthestudyofthesocialfunctionsoflanguageanthropologicallinguisticsisalsoconcernedwiththeevolutionofthepartsofthebrainthatdealwithlanguage
becauseanthropologydevelopedfromsomanydifferententerprisesseehistoryofanthropologyincludingbutnotlimitedtofossilhuntingexploringdocumentaryfilmmakingpaleontologyprimatologyantiquitydealingsandcuratorshipphilologyetymologygeneticsregionalanalysisethnologyhistoryphilosophyandreligiousstudiesitisdifficulttocharacterizetheentirefieldinabriefarticlealthoughattemptstowritehistoriesoftheentirefieldhavebeenmade
becauseoftheholisticnatureofanthropologicalresearchallbranchesofanthropologyhavewidespreadpracticalapplicationindiversefieldsthisisknownasappliedanthropologythusmilitaryexpeditionsemployanthropologiststodiscernstrategicculturalfootholdsmarketingprofessionalsemployanthropologytodeterminepropitiousplacementofadvertisingandhumanitarianagenciesdependonanthropologicalinsightsasmeanstofightpovertyexamplesofappliedanthropologyareubiquitous
focusedinapositivelightanthropologyisoneofthefewplaceswherehumanitiessocialandnaturalsciencesareforcedtoconfrontoneanotherassuchanthropologyhasbeencentralinthedevelopmentofseveralnewlate20thcenturyinterdisciplinaryfieldssuchascognitivescienceglobalstudiesandvariousethnicstudies
thereareseveralcharacteristicsthattendtouniteanthropologicalworkoneofthecentralcharacteristicsisthatanthropologytendstoprovideacomparativelymoreholisticaccountofphenomenaandtendstobehighlyempiricalthequestforholismleadsmostanthropologiststostudyaparticularplaceproblemorphenomenonindetailusingavarietyofmethodsoveramoreextensiveperiodthannormalinmanypartsofacademia
inthe1990sand2000scallsforclarificationofwhatconstitutesacultureofhowanobserverknowswherehisorherowncultureendsandanotherbeginsandothercrucialtopicsinwritinganthropologywerehearditispossibletoviewallhumanculturesaspartofonelargeevolvingglobalculturethesedynamicrelationshipsbetweenwhatcanbeobservedonthegroundasopposedtowhatcanbeobservedbycompilingmanylocalobservationsremainfundamentalinanykindofanthropologywhetherculturalbiologicallinguisticorarchaeological
biologicalanthropologistsareinterestedinbothhumanvariationandinthepossibilityofhumanuniversalsbehaviorsideasorconceptssharedbyvirtuallyallhumanculturestheyusemanydifferentmethodsofstudybutmodernpopulationgeneticsparticipantobservationandothertechniquesoftentakeanthropologistsintothefieldwhichmeanstravelingtoacommunityinitsownsettingtodosomethingcalledfieldworkonthebiologicalorphysicalsidehumanmeasurementsgeneticsamplesnutritionaldatamaybegatheredandpublishedasarticlesormonographsduetotheinterestinvariationanthropologistsaredrawntothestudyofhumanextremesaberrationsandotherunusualcircumstancessuchasheadhuntingwhirlingdervisheswhethertherewererealhobbitpeoplesnakehandlingandglossolaliaspeakingintonguesjusttolistafew
atthesametimeanthropologistsurgeaspartoftheirquestforscientificobjectivityculturalrelativismwhichhasaninfluenceonallthesubfieldsofanthropologythisisthenotionthatparticularculturesshouldnotbejudgedbyoneculturesvaluesorviewpointsbutthatallculturesshouldbeviewedasrelativetoeachotherthereshouldbenonotionsingoodanthropologyofoneculturebeingbetterorworsethananotherculture
ethicalcommitmentsinanthropologyincludenoticinganddocumentinggenocideinfanticideracismmutilationincludingcircumcisionandsubincisionandtorturetopicslikeracismslaveryorhumansacrificethereforeattractanthropologicalattentionandtheoriesrangingfromnutritionaldeficienciestogenestoacculturationhavebeenproposednottomentiontheoriesofcolonialismandmanyothersasrootcausesofmansinhumanitytomantoillustratethedepthofananthropologicalapproachonecantakejustoneofthesetopicssuchasracismandfindthousandsofanthropologicalreferencesstretchingacrossallthemajorandminorsubfields
alongwithdividinguptheirprojectbytheoreticalemphasisanthropologiststypicallydividetheworldupintorelevanttimeperiodsandgeographicregionshumantimeonearthisdividedupintorelevantculturaltraditionsbasedonmaterialsuchasthepaleolithicandtheneolithicofparticularuseinarchaeologyfurtherculturalsubdivisionsaccordingtotooltypessuchasolduwanormousterianorlevalloisianhelparchaeologistsandotheranthropologistsinunderstandingmajortrendsinthehumanpastanthropologistsandgeographersshareapproachestocultureregionsaswellsincemappingculturesiscentraltobothsciencesbymakingcomparisonsacrossculturaltraditionstimebasedandculturalregionsspacebasedanthropologistshavedevelopedvariouskindsofcomparativemethodacentralpartoftheirscience
contemporaryanthropologyisanestablishedsciencewithacademicdepartmentsatmostuniversitiesandcollegesthesinglelargestorganizationofanthropologistsistheamericananthropologicalassociationwhichwasfoundedin1903membershipismadeupofanthropologistsfromaroundtheglobehundredsofotherorganizationsexistinthevarioussubfieldsofanthropologysometimesdividedupbynationorregionandmanyanthropologistsworkwithcollaboratorsinotherdisciplinessuchasgeologyphysicszoologypaleontologyanatomymusictheoryarthistorysociologyandsoonbelongingtoprofessionalsocietiesinthosedisciplinesaswell
thefirstuseofthetermanthropologyinenglishtorefertoanaturalscienceofhumanitywasapparentlyin1593thefirstofthelogiestobecoinedittookimmanuelkant25yearstowriteoneofthefirstmajortreatisesonanthropologyhisanthropologyfromapragmaticpointofviewkantisnotgenerallyconsideredtobeamodernanthropologisthoweverasheneverlefthisregionofgermanynordidhestudyanyculturesbesideshisownandinfactdescribestheneedforanthropologyasacorollaryfieldtohisownprimaryfieldofphilosophyhedidhoweverbeginteachinganannualcourseinanthropologyin1772anthropologyisthusprimarilyanenlightenmentandpostenlightenmentendeavor
historiansofanthropologylikemarvinharrisindicatetwomajorframeworkswithinwhichempiricalanthropologyhasariseninterestincomparisonsofpeopleoverspaceandinterestinlongtermhumanprocessesorhumansasviewedthroughtimeharrisdatesbothtoclassicalgreeceandclassicalromespecificallyherodotusoftencalledthefatherofhistoryandtheromanhistoriantacituswhowrotemanyofouronlysurvivingcontemporaryaccountsofseveralancientcelticandgermanicpeoplesherodotusfirstformulatedsomeofthepersistingproblemsofanthropology
medievalscholarsmaybeconsideredforerunnersofmodernanthropologyaswellinsofarastheyconductedorwrotedetailedstudiesofthecustomsofpeoplesconsidereddifferentfromthemselvesintermsofgeographyjohnofplanocarpinireportedofhisstayamongthemongolshisreportwasunusualinitsdetaileddepictionofanoneuropeanculture
marcopolossystematicobservationsofnatureanthropologyandgeographyareanotherexampleofstudyinghumanvariationacrossspacepolostravelstookhimacrosssuchadiversehumanlandscapeandhisaccountsofthepeopleshemetashejourneyedweresodetailedthattheyearnedforpolothenamethefatherofmodernanthropology
anothercandidateforoneofthefirstscholarstocarryoutcomparativeethnographictypestudiesinpersonwasthemedievalpersianscholarabūrayhānbīrūnīinthe11thcenturywhowroteaboutthepeoplescustomsandreligionsoftheindiansubcontinentlikemodernanthropologistsheengagedinextensiveparticipantobservationwithagivengroupofpeoplelearnttheirlanguageandstudiedtheirprimarytextsandpresentedhisfindingswithobjectivityandneutralityusingcrossculturalcomparisonshoweverothersarguethathecanhardlybeconsideredananthropologistintheconventionalsensehewrotedetailedcomparativestudiesonthereligionsandculturesinthemiddleeastmediterraneanandespeciallysouthasiabirunistraditionofcomparativecrossculturalstudycontinuedinthemuslimworldthroughtoibnkhaldunsworkinthe14thcentury
mostscholarsconsidermodernanthropologyasanoutgrowthoftheageofenlightenmentaperiodwheneuropeansattemptedsystematicallytostudyhumanbehaviortheknownvarietiesofwhichhadbeenincreasingsincethe15thcenturyasaresultofthefirsteuropeancolonizationwavethetraditionsofjurisprudencehistoryphilologyandsociologythenevolvedintosomethingmorecloselyresemblingthemodernviewsofthesedisciplinesandinformedthedevelopmentofthesocialsciencesofwhichanthropologywasapart
developmentsinthesystematicstudyofancientcivilizationsthroughthedisciplinesofclassicsandegyptologyinformedbotharchaeologyandeventuallysocialanthropologyasdidthestudyofeastandsouthasianlanguagesandculturesatthesametimetheromanticreactiontotheenlightenmentproducedthinkerssuchasjohanngottfriedherderandlaterwilhelmdiltheywhoseworkformedthebasisforthecultureconceptwhichiscentraltothediscipline
institutionallyanthropologyemergedfromthedevelopmentofnaturalhistoryexpoundedbyauthorssuchasbuffonthatoccurredduringtheeuropeancolonizationofthe17th18th19thand20thcenturiesprogramsofethnographicstudyoriginatedinthiseraasthestudyofthehumanprimitivesoverseenbycolonialadministrations
therewasatendencyinlate18thcenturyenlightenmentthoughttounderstandhumansocietyasnaturalphenomenathatbehavedaccordingtocertainprinciplesandthatcouldbeobservedempiricallyinsomewaysstudyingthelanguageculturephysiologyandartifactsofeuropeancolonieswasnotunlikestudyingthefloraandfaunaofthoseplaces
earlyanthropologywasdividedbetweenproponentsofunilinealismwhoarguedthatallsocietiespassedthroughasingleevolutionaryprocessfromthemostprimitivetothemostadvancedandvariousformsofnonlinealtheoristswhotendedtosubscribetoideassuchasdiffusionismmost19thcenturysocialtheoristsincludinganthropologistsviewednoneuropeansocietiesaswindowsontothepreindustrialhumanpast
asacademicdisciplinesbegantodifferentiateoverthecourseofthe19thcenturyanthropologygrewincreasinglydistinctfromthebiologicalapproachofnaturalhistoryontheonehandandfrompurelyhistoricalorliteraryfieldssuchasclassicsontheotheracommoncriticismhasbeenthatmanysocialsciencescholarssuchaseconomistssociologistsandpsychologistsinwesterncountriesfocusdisproportionatelyonwesternsubjectswhileanthropologyfocusesdisproportionatelyontheotherthishaschangedoverthelastpartofthe20thcenturyasanthropologistsincreasinglyalsostudywesternsubjectsparticularlyvariationacrossclassregionorethnicitywithinwesternsocietiesandothersocialscientistsincreasinglytakeaglobalviewoftheirfields
inthe20thcenturyacademicdisciplineshaveoftenbeeninstitutionallydividedintothreebroaddomainsthenaturalandbiologicalsciencesseektoderivegenerallawsthroughreproducibleandverifiableexperimentsthehumanitiesgenerallystudylocaltraditionsthroughtheirhistoryliteraturemusicandartswithanemphasisonunderstandingparticularindividualseventsoreras
thesocialscienceshavegenerallyattemptedtodevelopscientificmethodstounderstandsocialphenomenainageneralizablewaythoughusuallywithmethodsdistinctfromthoseofthenaturalsciencesinparticularsocialsciencesoftendevelopstatisticaldescriptionsratherthanthegenerallawsderivedinphysicsorchemistryortheymayexplainindividualcasesthroughmoregeneralprinciplesasinmanyfieldsofpsychologyanthropologylikesomefieldsofhistorydoesnoteasilyfitintooneofthesecategoriesanddifferentbranchesofanthropologydrawononeormoreofthesedomains
anthropologyasitemergedamongstthewesterncolonialpowersmentionedabovehasgenerallytakenadifferentpaththanthatinthecountriesofsouthernandcentraleuropeitalygreeceandthesuccessorstotheaustrohungarianandottomanempiresintheformertheencounterwithmultipledistinctculturesoftenverydifferentinorganizationandlanguagefromthoseofeuropehasledtoacontinuingemphasisoncrossculturalcomparisonandareceptivenesstocertainkindsofculturalrelativism
inthesuccessorstatesofcontinentaleuropeontheotherhandanthropologistsoftenjoinedwithfolkloristsandlinguistsinbuildingnationalistperspectivesethnologistsinthesecountriestendedtofocusondifferentiatingamonglocalethnolinguisticgroupsdocumentinglocalfolkcultureandrepresentingtheprehistoryofwhathasbecomeanationthroughvariousformsofpubliceducationegmuseumsofseveralkinds
inthisschemerussiaoccupiedamiddlepositionontheonehandithadalargeregionlargelyeastoftheuralsofhighlydistinctpreindustrialoftennonliteratepeoplessimilartothesituationintheamericasontheotherhandrussiaalsoparticipatedtosomedegreeinthenationalistculturalandpoliticalmovementsofcentralandeasterneuropeaftertherevolutionof1917anthropologyintheussrandlaterthesovietbloccountrieswerehighlyshapedbytherequirementtoconformtomarxisttheoriesofsocialevolution
tyloradvocatedstronglyforunilinealismandaformofuniformityofmankindtylorinparticularlaidthegroundworkfortheoriesofculturaldiffusionismstatingthattherearethreewaysthatdifferentgroupscanhavesimilarculturalformsortechnologiesindependentinventioninheritancefromancestorsinadistantregiontransmissionfromonerace1toanother
tylorformulatedoneoftheearlyandinfluentialanthropologicalconceptionsofcultureasthatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledgebeliefartmoralslawcustomandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsocietyhoweverasstockingnotestylormainlyconcernedhimselfwithdescribingandmappingthedistributionofparticularelementsofcultureratherthanwiththelargerfunctionandgenerallyseemedtoassumeavictorianideaofprogressratherthantheideaofnondirectionalmultilinealculturaldevelopmentproposedbylateranthropologists
tyloralsotheorizedabouttheoriginsofreligiousfeelingsinhumanbeingsproposingatheoryofanimismastheearlieststageandnotingthatreligionhasmanycomponentsofwhichhebelievedthemostimportanttobebeliefinsupernaturalbeingsasopposedtomoralsystemscosmologyetcfrazerascottishscholarwithabroadknowledgeofclassicsalsoconcernedhimselfwithreligionmythandmagichiscomparativestudiesmostinfluentiallyinthenumerouseditionsofthegoldenboughanalyzedsimilaritiesinreligiousbeliefandsymbolismglobally
neithertylornorfrazerhoweverwasparticularlyinterestedinfieldworknorweretheyinterestedinexamininghowtheculturalelementsandinstitutionsfittogethertowardtheturnofthe20thcenturyanumberofanthropologistsbecamedissatisfiedwiththiscategorizationofculturalelementshistoricalreconstructionsalsocametoseemincreasinglyspeculative
undertheinfluenceofseveralyoungerscholarsanewapproachcametopredominateamongbritishanthropologistsconcernedwithanalyzinghowsocietiesheldtogetherinthepresentsynchronicanalysisratherthandiachronicorhistoricalanalysisandemphasizinglongtermonetoseveralyearsimmersionfieldworkcambridgeuniversityfinancedamultidisciplinaryexpeditiontothetorresstraitislandsin1898organizedbyalfredcourthaddonandincludingaphysiciananthropologistwilliamriversaswellasalinguistabotanistotherspecialiststhefindingsoftheexpeditionsetnewstandardsforethnographicdescription
adecadeandahalflaterpolishanthropologystudentbronisławmalinowski18841942wasbeginningwhatheexpectedtobeabriefperiodoffieldworkintheoldmodelcollectinglistsofculturalitemswhentheoutbreakofthefirstworldwarstrandedhiminnewguineaasasubjectoftheaustrohungarianempireresidentonabritishcolonialpossessionhewaseffectivelyconfinedtonewguineaforseveralyears
hemadeuseofthetimebyundertakingfarmoreintensivefieldworkthanhadbeendonebybritishanthropologistsandhisclassicethnographyargonautsofthewesternpacific1922advocatedanapproachtofieldworkthatbecamestandardinthefieldgettingthenativespointofviewthroughparticipantobservationtheoreticallyheadvocatedafunctionalistinterpretationwhichexaminedhowsocialinstitutionsfunctionedtosatisfyindividualneeds
britishsocialanthropologyhadanexpansivemomentintheinterwarperiodwithkeycontributionscomingfromthepolishbritishbronisławmalinowskiandmeyerfortes
arradcliffebrownalsopublishedaseminalworkin1922hehadcarriedouthisinitialfieldworkintheandamanislandsintheoldstyleofhistoricalreconstructionhoweverafterreadingtheworkoffrenchsociologistsémiledurkheimandmarcelmaussradcliffebrownpublishedanaccountofhisresearchentitledsimplytheandamanislandersthatpaidcloseattentiontothemeaningandpurposeofritualsandmythsovertimehedevelopedanapproachknownasstructuralfunctionalismwhichfocusedonhowinstitutionsinsocietiesworkedtobalanceoutorcreateanequilibriuminthesocialsystemtokeepitfunctioningharmoniouslythiscontrastedwithmalinowskisfunctionalismandwasquitedifferentfromthelaterfrenchstructuralismwhichexaminedtheconceptualstructuresinlanguageandsymbolism
malinowskiandradcliffebrownsinfluencestemmedfromthefactthattheylikeboasactivelytrainedstudentsandaggressivelybuiltupinstitutionsthatfurtheredtheirprogrammaticambitionsthiswasparticularlythecasewithradcliffebrownwhospreadhisagendaforsocialanthropologybyteachingatuniversitiesacrossthebritishcommonwealthfromthelate1930suntilthepostwarperiodappearedastringofmonographsandeditedvolumesthatcementedtheparadigmofbritishsocialanthropologybsafamousethnographiesincludethenuerbyedwardevanevanspritchardandthedynamicsofclanshipamongthetallensibymeyerforteswellknowneditedvolumesincludeafricansystemsofkinshipandmarriageandafricanpoliticalsystems
maxgluckmantogetherwithmanyofhiscolleaguesattherhodeslivingstoneinstituteandstudentsatmanchesteruniversitycollectivelyknownasthemanchesterschooltookbsainnewdirectionsthroughtheirintroductionofexplicitlymarxistinformedtheorytheiremphasisonconflictsandconflictresolutionandtheirattentiontothewaysinwhichindividualsnegotiateandmakeuseofthesocialstructuralpossibilities
inbritainanthropologyhadagreatintellectualimpactitcontributedtotheerosionofchristianitythegrowthofculturalrelativismanawarenessofthesurvivaloftheprimitiveinmodernlifeandthereplacementofdiachronicmodesofanalysiswithsynchronicallofwhicharecentraltomodernculture
laterinthe1960sand1970sedmundleachandhisstudentsmarydouglasandnuryalmanamongothersintroducedfrenchstructuralisminthestyleoflévistrausswhilebritishanthropologyhascontinuedtoemphasizesocialorganizationandeconomicsoverpurelysymbolicorliterarytopicsdifferencesamongbritishfrenchandamericansocioculturalanthropologieshavediminishedwithincreasingdialogueandborrowingofboththeoryandmethodstodaysocialanthropologyinbritainengagesinternationallywithmanyothersocialtheoriesandhasbranchedinmanydirections
incountriesofthebritishcommonwealthsocialanthropologyhasoftenbeeninstitutionallyseparatefromphysicalanthropologyandprimatologywhichmaybeconnectedwithdepartmentsofbiologyorzoologyandfromarchaeologywhichmaybeconnectedwithdepartmentsofclassicsegyptologyandthelikeinothercountriesandinsomeparticularlysmallerbritishandnorthamericanuniversitiesanthropologistshavealsofoundthemselvesinstitutionallylinkedwithscholarsoffolkloremuseumstudieshumangeographysociologysocialrelationsethnicstudiesculturalstudiesandsocialwork
anthropologyhasbeenusedinbritaintoprovideanalternativeexplanationforthefinancialcrisisof20072010tothetechnicalexplanationsrootedineconomicandpoliticaltheorydrgilliantettacambridgeuniversitytrainedanthropologistwhowentontobecomeasenioreditoratthefinancialtimesisoneoftheleadersinthisuseofanthropology
fromitsbeginningsintheearly19thcenturythroughtheearly20thcenturyanthropologyintheunitedstateswasinfluencedbythepresenceofnativeamericansocieties
lewishenrymorgan18181881alawyerfromrochesternewyorkbecameanadvocateforandethnologicalscholaroftheiroquoishiscomparativeanalysesofreligiongovernmentmaterialcultureandespeciallykinshippatternsprovedtobeinfluentialcontributionstothefieldofanthropologylikeotherscholarsofhisdaysuchasedwardtylormorganarguedthathumansocietiescouldbeclassifiedintocategoriesofculturalevolutiononascaleofprogressionthatrangedfromsavagerytobarbarismtocivilizationgenerallymorganusedtechnologysuchasbowmakingorpotteryasanindicatorofpositiononthisscale
franzboasestablishedacademicanthropologyintheunitedstatesinoppositiontothissortofevolutionaryperspectivehisapproachwasempiricalskepticalofovergeneralizationsandeschewedattemptstoestablishuniversallawsforexampleboasstudiedimmigrantchildrentodemonstratethatbiologicalracewasnotimmutableandthathumanconductandbehaviorresultedfromnurtureratherthannature
influencedbythegermantraditionboasarguedthattheworldwasfullofdistinctculturesratherthansocietieswhoseevolutioncouldbemeasuredbyhowmuchorhowlittlecivilizationtheyhadhebelievedthateachculturehastobestudiedinitsparticularityandarguedthatcrossculturalgeneralizationslikethosemadeinthenaturalscienceswerenotpossible
indoingsohefoughtdiscriminationagainstimmigrantsblacksandindigenouspeoplesoftheamericasmanyamericananthropologistsadoptedhisagendaforsocialreformandtheoriesofracecontinuetobepopularsubjectsforanthropologiststodaythesocalledfourfieldapproachhasitsoriginsinboasiananthropologydividingthedisciplineinthefourcrucialandinterrelatedfieldsofsocioculturalbiologicallinguisticandarchaicanthropologyegarchaeologyanthropologyintheunitedstatescontinuestobedeeplyinfluencedbytheboasiantraditionespeciallyitsemphasisonculture
boasusedhispositionsatcolumbiauniversityandtheamericanmuseumofnaturalhistorytotrainanddevelopmultiplegenerationsofstudentshisfirstgenerationofstudentsincludedalfredkroeberrobertlowieedwardsapirandruthbenedictwhoeachproducedrichlydetailedstudiesofindigenousnorthamericanculturestheyprovidedawealthofdetailsusedtoattackthetheoryofasingleevolutionaryprocesskroeberandsapirsfocusonnativeamericanlanguageshelpedestablishlinguisticsasatrulygeneralscienceandfreeitfromitshistoricalfocusonindoeuropeanlanguages
thepublicationofalfredkroeberstextbookanthropologymarkedaturningpointinamericananthropologyafterthreedecadesofamassingmaterialboasiansfeltagrowingurgetogeneralizethiswasmostobviousinthecultureandpersonalitystudiescarriedoutbyyoungerboasianssuchasmargaretmeadandruthbenedictinfluencedbypsychoanalyticpsychologistsincludingsigmundfreudandcarljungtheseauthorssoughttounderstandthewaythatindividualpersonalitieswereshapedbythewiderculturalandsocialforcesinwhichtheygrewup
thoughsuchworksascomingofageinsamoaandthechrysanthemumandtheswordremainpopularwiththeamericanpublicmeadandbenedictneverhadtheimpactonthedisciplineofanthropologythatsomeexpectedboashadplannedforruthbenedicttosucceedhimaschairofcolumbiasanthropologydepartmentbutshewassidelinedbyralphlintonandmeadwaslimitedtoherofficesattheamnh
canadiananthropologybeganasinotherpartsofthecolonialworldasethnologicaldataintherecordsoftravellersandmissionariesincanadajesuitmissionariessuchasfathersleclercqlejeuneandsagardinthe17thcenturyprovidetheoldestethnographicrecordsofnativetribesinwhatwasthenthedomainofcanada
trueanthropologybeganwithagovernmentdepartmentthegeologicalsurveyofcanadaandgeorgemercerdawsondirectorin1895dawsonssupportforanthropologycreatedimpetusfortheprofessionincanadathiswasexpandeduponbyprimeministerwilfridlaurierwhoestablishedadivisionofanthropologywithinthegeologicalsurveyin1910anthropologistswererecruitedfromenglandandtheusasettingthefoundationfortheuniquecanadianstyleofanthropologyscholarsincludethelinguistandboasianedwardsapir
mostcommentatorsconsidermarcelmauss18721950nephewoftheinfluentialsociologistémiledurkheimtobethefounderofthefrenchanthropologicaltraditionmaussbelongedtodurkheimsannéesociologiquegroupwhiledurkheimandothersexaminedthestateofmodernsocietiesmaussandhiscollaboratorssuchashenrihubertandroberthertzdrewonethnographyandphilologytoanalyzesocietiesthatwerenotasdifferentiatedaseuropeannationstates
twoworksbymaussinparticularprovedtohaveenduringrelevanceessayonthegiftaseminalanalysisofexchangeandreciprocityandhishuxleylectureonthenotionofthepersonthefirstcomparativestudyofnotionsofpersonandselfhoodcrossculturally
throughouttheinterwaryearsfrenchinterestinanthropologyoftendovetailedwithwiderculturalmovementssuchassurrealismandprimitivismwhichdrewonethnographyforinspirationmarcelgriauleandmichelleirisareexamplesofpeoplewhocombinedanthropologywiththefrenchavantgardeduringthistimemostofwhatisknownasethnologiewasrestrictedtomuseumssuchasthemuséedelhommefoundedbypaulrivetandanthropologyhadacloserelationshipwithstudiesoffolklore
aboveallclaudelévistrausshelpedinstitutionalizeanthropologyinfrancealongwiththeenormousinfluencethathistheoryofstructuralismexertedacrossmultipledisciplineslévistraussestablishedtieswithamericanandbritishanthropologistsatthesametimeheestablishedcentersandlaboratorieswithinfrancetoprovideaninstitutionalcontextwithinanthropologywhiletraininginfluentialstudentssuchasmauricegodelierandfrançoisehéritiertheyprovedinfluentialintheworldoffrenchanthropologymuchofthedistinctcharacteroffrancesanthropologytodayisaresultofthefactthatmostanthropologyiscarriedoutinnationallyfundedresearchlaboratoriescnrsratherthanacademicdepartmentsinuniversities
otherinfluentialwritersinthe1970sincludepierreclastreswhoexplainsinhisbooksontheguayakitribeinparaguaythatprimitivesocietiesactivelyopposetheinstitutionofthestatethesestatelesssocietiesarenotlessevolvedthansocietieswithstatesbutchosetoconjuretheinstitutionofauthorityasaseparatefunctionfromsocietytheleaderisonlyaspokespersonforthegroupwhenithastodealwithothergroupsinternationalrelationsbuthasnoinsideauthorityandmaybeviolentlyremovedifheattemptstoabusethisposition
themostimportantfrenchsocialtheoristsincefoucaultandlévistraussispierrebourdieuwhotrainedformallyinphilosophyandsociologyandeventuallyheldthechairofsociologyatthecollègedefrancelikemaussandothersbeforehimheworkedontopicsbothinsociologyandanthropologyhisfieldworkamongthekabyleofalgeriaplaceshimsolidlyinanthropologywhilehisanalysisofthefunctionandreproductionoffashionandculturalcapitalineuropeansocietiesplaceshimassolidlyinsociology
anthropologyingreeceandportugalisgreatlyinfluencedbybritishanthropologyingreecetherewassincethe19thcenturyascienceofthefolklorecalledlaographialaographyintheformofascienceoftheinterioralthoughtheoreticallyweakbuttheconnotationofthefielddeeplychangedafterworldwariiwhenawaveofangloamericananthropologistsintroducedascienceoftheoutsideinitalythedevelopmentofethnologyandrelatedstudiesdidnotreceiveasmuchattentionasotherbranchesoflearning
beforewwiibritishsocialanthropologyandamericanculturalanthropologywerestilldistincttraditionsafterthewarenoughbritishandamericananthropologistsborrowedideasandmethodologicalapproachesfromoneanotherthatsomebegantospeakofthemcollectivelyassocioculturalanthropology
inthe1950sandmid1960santhropologytendedincreasinglytomodelitselfafterthenaturalsciencessomeanthropologistssuchaslloydfallersandcliffordgeertzfocusedonprocessesofmodernizationbywhichnewlyindependentstatescoulddevelopotherssuchasjulianstewardandlesliewhitefocusedonhowsocietiesevolveandfittheirecologicalnicheanapproachpopularizedbymarvinharris
economicanthropologyasinfluencedbykarlpolanyiandpracticedbymarshallsahlinsandgeorgedaltonchallengedstandardneoclassicaleconomicstotakeaccountofculturalandsocialfactorsandemployedmarxiananalysisintoanthropologicalstudyinenglandbritishsocialanthropologysparadigmbegantofragmentasmaxgluckmanandpeterworsleyexperimentedwithmarxismandauthorssuchasrodneyneedhamandedmundleachincorporatedlévistrausssstructuralismintotheirwork
structuralismalsoinfluencedanumberofdevelopmentsin1960sand1970sincludingcognitiveanthropologyandcomponentialanalysisauthorssuchasdavidschneidercliffordgeertzandmarshallsahlinsdevelopedamorefleshedoutconceptofcultureasawebofmeaningorsignificationwhichprovedverypopularwithinandbeyondthedisciplineinkeepingwiththetimesmuchofanthropologybecamepoliticizedthroughthealgerianwarofindependenceandoppositiontothevietnamwarmarxismbecameanincreasinglypopulartheoreticalapproachinthedisciplinebythe1970stheauthorsofvolumessuchasreinventinganthropologyworriedaboutanthropologysrelevance
sincethe1980sissuesofpowersuchasthoseexaminedinericwolfseuropeandthepeoplewithouthistoryhavebeencentraltothedisciplineinthe80sbookslikeanthropologyandthecolonialencounterponderedanthropologystiestocolonialinequalitywhiletheimmensepopularityoftheoristssuchasantoniogramsciandmichelfoucaultmovedissuesofpowerandhegemonyintothespotlightgenderandsexualitybecamepopulartopicsasdidtherelationshipbetweenhistoryandanthropologyinfluencedbymarshallsahlinsagainwhodrewonlévistraussandfernandbraudeltoexaminetherelationshipbetweensocialstructureandindividualagencyalsoinfluentialintheseissueswerenietzscheheideggerthecriticaltheoryofthefrankfurtschoolderridaandlacan
inthelate1980sand1990sauthorssuchasgeorgemarcusandjamescliffordponderedethnographicauthorityinparticularhowandwhyanthropologicalknowledgewaspossibleandauthoritativetheywerereflectingtrendsinresearchanddiscourseinitiatedbyfeministsintheacademyalthoughtheyexcusedthemselvesfromcommentingspecificallyonthosepioneeringcriticsneverthelesskeyaspectsoffeministtheorizingandmethodsbecamederigueuraspartofthepostmodernmomentinanthropologyethnographiesbecamemorereflexiveexplicitlyaddressingtheauthorsmethodologyculturalgenderandracialpositioningandtheirinfluenceonhisorherethnographicanalysisthiswaspartofamoregeneraltrendofpostmodernismthatwaspopularcontemporaneouslycurrentlyanthropologistspayattentiontoawidevarietyofissuespertainingtothecontemporaryworldincludingglobalizationmedicineandbiotechnologyindigenousrightsvirtualcommunitiesandtheanthropologyofindustrializedsocieties
anthropologistslikeotherresearchersespeciallyhistoriansandscientistsengagedinfieldresearchhaveovertimeassistedstatepoliciesandprojectsespeciallycolonialism
somecommentatorshavecontended
anthropologistsinvolvementwiththeusgovernmentinparticularhascausedbittercontroversywithinthedisciplinefranzboaspubliclyobjectedtousparticipationinworldwariandafterthewarhepublishedabriefexposeandcondemnationoftheparticipationofseveralamericanarchaeologistsinespionageinmexicoundertheircoverasscientists
butbythe1940smanyofboasanthropologistcontemporarieswereactiveinthealliedwareffortagainsttheaxisnazigermanyfascistitalyandimperialjapanmanyservedinthearmedforceswhileothersworkedinintelligenceforexampleofficeofstrategicservicesandtheofficeofwarinformationatthesametimedavidhpricesworkonamericananthropologyduringthecoldwarprovidesdetailedaccountsofthepursuitanddismissalofseveralanthropologistsfromtheirjobsforcommunistsympathies
attemptstoaccuseanthropologistsofcomplicitywiththeciaandgovernmentintelligenceactivitiesduringthevietnamwaryearshaveturnedupsurprisinglylittlealthoughanthropologisthugonutiniwasactiveinthestillbornprojectcamelotmanyanthropologistsstudentsandteacherswereactiveintheantiwarmovementnumerousresolutionscondemningthewarinallitsaspectswerepassedoverwhelminglyattheannualmeetingsoftheamericananthropologicalassociationaaa
professionalanthropologicalbodiesoftenobjecttotheuseofanthropologyforthebenefitofthestatetheircodesofethicsorstatementsmayproscribeanthropologistsfromgivingsecretbriefingstheassociationofsocialanthropologistsoftheukandcommonwealthasahascalledcertainscholarshipethicallydangeroustheaaascurrentstatementofprofessionalresponsibilityclearlystatesthatinrelationwiththeirowngovernmentandwithhostgovernmentsnosecretresearchnosecretreportsordebriefingsofanykindshouldbeagreedtoorgiven
anthropologistsalongwithothersocialscientistsareworkingwiththeusmilitaryaspartoftheusarmysstrategyinafghanistanthechristiansciencemonitorreportsthatcounterinsurgencyeffortsfocusonbettergraspingandmeetinglocalneedsinafghanistanunderthehumanterrainsystemhtsprograminadditionhtsteamsareworkingwiththeusmilitaryiniraq
focusonotherculturessomeauthorsarguethatanthropologyoriginatedanddevelopedasthestudyofotherculturesbothintermsoftimepastsocietiesandspacenoneuropeannonwesternsocietiesforexampletheclassicofurbananthropologyulfhannerzintheintroductiontohisseminalexploringthecityinquiriestowardanurbananthropologymentionsthatthethirdworldhadhabituallyreceivedmostofattentionanthropologistswhotraditionallyspecializedinothercultureslookedforthemfarawayandstartedtolookacrossthetracksonlyinlate1960s
nowthereexistmanyworksfocusingonpeoplesandtopicsveryclosetotheauthorshome
agriculturalscienceisabroadmultidisciplinaryfieldthatencompassesthepartsofexactnaturaleconomicandsocialsciencesthatareusedinthepracticeandunderstandingofagricultureveterinarysciencebutnotanimalscienceisoftenexcludedfromthedefinition
thetwotermsareoftenconfusedhowevertheycoverdifferentconcepts
agriculturalsciencesincluderesearchanddevelopmenton
withtheexceptionoftheoreticalagronomyresearchinagronomymorethaninanyotherfieldisstronglyrelatedtolocalareasitcanbeconsideredascienceofecoregionsbecauseitiscloselylinkedtosoilpropertiesandclimatewhichareneverexactlythesamefromoneplacetoanothermanypeoplethinkanagriculturalproductionsystemrelyingonlocalweathersoilcharacteristicsandspecificcropshastobestudiedlocallyothersfeelaneedtoknowandunderstandproductionsystemsinasmanyareasaspossibleandthehumandimensionofinteractionwithnature
intensificationofagriculturesincethe1960sindevelopedanddevelopingcountriesoftenreferredtoasthegreenrevolutionwascloselytiedtoprogressmadeinselectingandimprovingcropsandanimalsforhighproductivityaswellastodevelopingadditionalinputssuchasartificialfertilizersandphytosanitaryproducts
astheoldestandlargesthumaninterventioninnaturetheenvironmentalimpactofagricultureingeneralandmorerecentlyintensiveagricultureindustrialdevelopmentandpopulationgrowthhaveraisedmanyquestionsamongagriculturalscientistsandhaveledtothedevelopmentandemergenceofnewfieldstheseincludetechnologicalfieldsthatassumethesolutiontotechnologicalproblemsliesinbettertechnologysuchasintegratedpestmanagementwastetreatmenttechnologieslandscapearchitecturegenomicsandagriculturalphilosophyfieldsthatincludereferencestofoodproductionassomethingessentiallydifferentfromnonessentialeconomicgoodsinfacttheinteractionbetweenthesetwoapproachesprovideafertilefieldfordeeperunderstandinginagriculturalscience
newtechnologiessuchasbiotechnologyandcomputersciencefordataprocessingandstorageandtechnologicaladvanceshavemadeitpossibletodevelopnewresearchfieldsincludinggeneticengineeringagrophysicsimprovedstatisticalanalysisandprecisionfarmingbalancingtheseasabovearethenaturalandhumansciencesofagriculturalsciencethatseektounderstandthehumannatureinteractionsoftraditionalagricultureincludinginteractionofreligionandagricultureandthenonmaterialcomponentsofagriculturalproductionsystems
agriculturesciencesseektofeedtheworldspopulationwhilepreventingbiosafetyproblemsthatmayaffecthumanhealthandtheenvironmentthisrequirespromotinggoodmanagementofnaturalresourcesandrespectfortheenvironmentandincreasinglyconcernforthepsychologicalwellbeingofallconcernedinthefoodproductionandconsumptionsystem
economicenvironmentalandsocialaspectsofagriculturesciencesaresubjectsofongoingdebaterecentcrisessuchasavianinfluenzamadcowdiseaseandissuessuchastheuseofgeneticallymodifiedorganismsillustratethecomplexityandimportanceofthisdebate
alchemyisanancienttraditiontheprimaryobjectiveofwhichwasthecreationofthemythicalphilosophersstonewhichwassaidtobecapableofturningbasemetalsintogoldorsilverandalsoactasanelixiroflifethatwouldconferyouthandimmortalityuponitsuseralchemycanbeviewedasaprotoscienceaprecursortomodernchemistryhavingprovidedproceduresequipmentandterminologythatarestillinusehoweveralchemyalsoincludedvariousnonscientificmythologicalreligiousandspiritualconceptstheoriesandpractices
thebestknowngoalsofthealchemistswerethetransmutationofcommonmetalsintogoldorsilverandthecreationofapanaceaaremedythatsupposedlywouldcurealldiseasesandprolonglifeindefinitelyandthediscoveryofauniversalsolventalthoughthesewerenottheonlyusesforthedisciplinetheyweretheonesmostdocumentedandwellknownalchemistsinvestedmucheffortinthesearchforthephilosophersstonealegendarysubstancethatwasbelievedtobeanessentialingredientforeitherorbothofthosegoals
moderndiscussionsofalchemyaregenerallysplitintoanexaminationofitsexotericpracticalapplicationsanditsesotericaspectstheformerispursuedbyhistoriansofthephysicalscienceswhohaveexaminedthesubjectintermsofprotochemistrymedicineandcharlatanismthelatterisofinteresttothehistoriansofesotericismpsychologistsspiritualandnewagecommunitiesandhermeticphilosophersthesubjecthasalsomadeanongoingimpactonliteratureandtheartsdespitethemodernsplitnumeroussourcesstressanintegrationofesotericandexotericapproachestoalchemyholmyardwhenwritingonexotericaspectsstatesthattheycannotbeproperlyappreciatediftheesotericisnotalwayskeptinmindtheprototypeforthismodelcanbefoundinbolosofmendessecondcenturybceworkphysikakaimystikaonphysicalandmysticalmatters
practicalapplicationsofalchemyproducedawiderangeofcontributionstomedicineandthephysicalsciencesalchemistsjābiribnhayyānandrobertboylearebothcreditedasbeingthefathersofchemistryparacelsianiatrochemistryemphasizedthemedicinalapplicationofalchemycontinuedinplantalchemyorspagyricstudiesofalchemyalsoinfluencedisaacnewtonstheoryofgravityacademichistoricalresearchsupportsthatthealchemistsweresearchingforamaterialsubstanceusingphysicalmethods
itisapopularbeliefthatalchemistsmadecontributionstothechemicalindustriesofthedayoretestingandrefiningmetalworkingproductionofgunpowderinkdyespaintscosmeticsleathertanningceramicsglassmanufacturepreparationofextractsliquorsandsoonitseemsthatthepreparationofaquavitaethewateroflifewasafairlypopularexperimentamongeuropeanalchemistsalchemistscontributeddistillationtowesterneuropetheattemptsofalchemiststoarrangeinformationonsubstancessoastoclarifyandanticipatetheproductsoftheirchemicalreactionsresultedinearlyconceptionsofchemicalelementsandthefirstrudimentaryperiodictablestheylearnedhowtoextractmetalsfromoresandhowtocomposemanytypesofinorganicacidsandbases
duringthe17thcenturypracticalalchemystartedtoevolveintomodernchemistryasitwasrenamedbyrobertboylethefatherofmodernchemistryinhisbooktheskepticalchymistboyleattackedparacelsusandthenaturalphilosophyofaristotlewhichwastaughtatuniversitieshoweverboylesbiographersintheiremphasisthathelaidthefoundationsofmodernchemistryneglecthowsteadilyheclungtothescholasticsciencesandtoalchemyintheorypracticeanddoctrinethedeclineofalchemycontinuedinthe18thcenturywiththebirthofmodernchemistrywhichprovidedamorepreciseandreliableframeworkwithinanewviewoftheuniversebasedonrationalmaterialism
intheeyesofavarietyofesotericandhermeticpractitionerstheheartofalchemyisspiritualtransmutationofleadintogoldispresentedasananalogyforpersonaltransmutationpurificationandperfectionthisapproachisoftentermedspiritualesotericorinternalalchemy
earlyalchemistssuchaszosimosofpanopolisc300adhighlightthespiritualnatureofthealchemicalquestsymbolicofareligiousregenerationofthehumansoulthisapproachcontinuedinthemiddleagesasmetaphysicalaspectssubstancesphysicalstatesandmaterialprocesseswereusedasmetaphorsforspiritualentitiesspiritualstatesandultimatelytransformationinthissensetheliteralmeaningsofalchemicalformulaswereablindhidingtheirtruespiritualphilosophypractitionersandpatronssuchasmelchiorcibinensisandpopeinnocentviiiexistedwithintheranksofthechurchwhilemartinlutherapplaudedalchemyforitsconsistencywithchristianteachingsboththetransmutationofcommonmetalsintogoldandtheuniversalpanaceasymbolizedevolutionfromanimperfectdiseasedcorruptibleandephemeralstatetowardsaperfecthealthyincorruptibleandeverlastingstateandthephilosophersstonethenrepresentedamystickeythatwouldmakethisevolutionpossibleappliedtothealchemisthimselfthetwingoalsymbolizedhisevolutionfromignorancetoenlightenmentandthestonerepresentedahiddenspiritualtruthorpowerthatwouldleadtothatgoalintextsthatarewrittenaccordingtothisviewthecrypticalchemicalsymbolsdiagramsandtextualimageryoflatealchemicalworkstypicallycontainmultiplelayersofmeaningsallegoriesandreferencestootherequallycrypticworksandmustbelaboriouslydecodedtodiscovertheirtruemeaning
inhis1766alchemicalcatechismthéodorehenridetschudidenotesthattheusageofthemetalswasasymbol
duringtherenaissancealchemybrokeintomoredistinctschoolsplacingspiritualalchemistsinhighcontrastwiththoseworkingwithliteralmetalsandchemicalswhilemostspiritualalchemistsalsoincorporateelementsofexotericismexamplesofapurelyspiritualalchemycanbetracedbackasfarasthesixteenthcenturywhenjacobboehmeusedalchemicalterminologyinstrictlymysticalwritingsanotherexamplecanbefoundintheworkofheinrichkhunrath15601605whoviewedtheprocessoftransmutationasoccurringwithinthealchemistssoul
therecentworkofprincipeandnewmanseekstorejectthespiritualinterpretationofalchemystatingitaroseasaproductofthevictorianoccultrevivalthereisevidencetosupportthatsomeclassicalalchemicalsourceswereadulteratedduringthistimetogivegreaterweighttothespiritualaspectsofalchemydespitethisotherscholarssuchascalianandtiltonrejectthisviewasentirelyhistoricallyinaccuratedrawingexamplesofhistoricalspiritualalchemyfromboehmeisaacnewtonandmichaelmaier
thewordalchemyderivesfromtheoldfrenchalquimiewhichisfromthemedievallatinalchimiaandwhichisinturnfromthearabicalkimiaالكيمياءthistermitselfisderivedfromtheancientgreekchemeiaχημείαorchemiaχημίαwiththeadditionofthearabicdefinitearticlealالـtheancientgreekwordmayhavebeenderivedfromaversionoftheegyptiannameforegyptwhichwasitselfbasedontheancientegyptianwordkēmehieroglyphickhmiblackearthasopposedtodesertsandwiththelaterriseofalchemyinalexandriathewordmayhavederivedfromχημίαandthusbecamespelledasχημείαandtheoriginalmeaningforgottentheetymologyisstillopenandrecentresearchindicatesthattheegyptianderivationmaybevalid
alchemycoversseveralphilosophicaltraditionsspanningsomefourmillenniaandthreecontinentsthesetraditionsgeneralpenchantforcrypticandsymboliclanguagemakesithardtotracetheirmutualinfluencesandgeneticrelationshipsonecandistinguishatleastthreemajorstrandswhichappeartobelargelyindependentatleastintheirearlierstageschinesealchemycenteredinchinaanditszoneofculturalinfluenceindianalchemycenteredaroundtheindiansubcontinentandwesternalchemywhichoccurredaroundthemediterraneanandwhosecenterhasshiftedoverthemillenniafromgrecoromanegypttotheislamicworldandfinallymedievaleuropechinesealchemywascloselyconnectedtotaoismandindianalchemywiththedharmicfaithswhereaswesternalchemydevelopeditsownphilosophicalsystemthatwaslargelyindependentofbutinfluencedbyvariouswesternreligionsitisstillanopenquestionwhetherthesethreestrandsshareacommonoriginortowhatextenttheyinfluencedeachother
theoriginofwesternalchemymaygenerallybetracedtohellenisticegyptthehellenisticcityofalexandriawasacenterofgreekalchemicalknowledgeandretaineditspreeminencethroughmostofthegreekandromanperiodshereelementsoftechnologyreligionmythologyandgreekphilosophyeachwiththeirownmuchlongerhistoriescombinedtoformtheearliestknownrecordsofalchemyinthewestzosimosofpanopoliswrotetheoldestknownbooksonalchemywhilemarythejewessiscreditedasbeingthefirstnonfictitiouswesternalchemisttheywroteingreekandlivedinegyptunderromanrule
mythologyitisclaimedbyzosimosofpanopolisthatalchemydatedbacktopharaonicegyptwhereitwasthedomainofthepriestlyclassthereislittleornoevidenceforsuchaclaimthoughalchemicalwritersusedclassicalfiguresfromgreekromanandegyptianmythologytoilluminatetheirworksandallegorizealchemicaltransmutationtheseincludedthepantheonofgodsrelatedtotheclassicalplanetsisisosirisjasonandmanyothers
thecentralfigureinthemythologyofalchemyishermestrismegistusorthricegreathermeshisnameisderivedfromthegodthothandhisgreekcounterparthermeshermesandhiscaduceusorserpentstaffwereamongalchemysprincipalsymbolsaccordingtoclementofalexandriahewrotewhatwerecalledthefortytwobooksofhermescoveringallfieldsofknowledgethehermeticaofthricegreathermesisgenerallyunderstoodtoformthebasisforwesternalchemicalphilosophyandpracticecalledthehermeticphilosophybyitsearlypractitionersthesewritingswerecollectedinthefirstcenturiesofthecommonera
technologythedawnofwesternalchemyissometimesassociatedwiththatofmetallurgyextendingbackto3500bcemanywritingswerelostwhentheemperordiocletianorderedtheburningofalchemicalbooksaftersuppressingarevoltinalexandria292cefeworiginalegyptiandocumentsonalchemyhavesurvivedmostnotableamongthemthestockholmpapyrusandtheleydenpapyrusxdatingfrom300to500cetheycontainedrecipesfordyeingandmakingartificialgemstonescleaningandfabricatingpearlsandthemanufactureofimitationgoldandsilverthesewritingslackthemysticalphilosophicalelementsofalchemybutdocontaintheworksofbolusofmendesorpseudodemocrituswhichalignedtheserecipeswiththeoreticalknowledgeofastrologyandtheclassicalelementsbetweenthetimeofbolusandzosimosthechangetookplacethattransformedthismetallurgyintoahermeticart
philosophyalexandriaactedasameltingpotforphilosophiesofpythagoreanismplatonismstoicismandgnosticismwhichformedtheoriginofalchemyscharacteranimportantexampleofalchemysrootsingreekphilosophyoriginatedbyempedoclesanddevelopedbyaristotlewasthatallthingsintheuniversewereformedfromonlyfourelementsearthairwaterandfireaccordingtoaristotleeachelementhadaspheretowhichitbelongedandtowhichitwouldreturnifleftundisturbedthefourelementsofthegreekweremostlyqualitativeaspectsofmatternotquantitativeasourmodernelementsaretruealchemyneverregardedearthairwaterandfireascorporealorchemicalsubstancesinthepresentdaysenseofthewordthefourelementsaresimplytheprimaryandmostgeneralqualitiesbymeansofwhichtheamorphousandpurelyquantitativesubstanceofallbodiesfirstrevealsitselfindifferentiatedformlateralchemistsextensivelydevelopedthemysticalaspectsofthisconcept
alchemycoexistedalongsideemergingchristianitylactantiusbelievedhermestrismegistushadprophesieditsbirthaugustine354430celateraffirmedthisbutalsocondemnedtrismegistusforidolatryexamplesofpaganchristianandjewishalchemistscanbefoundduringthisperiod
mostofthegrecoromanalchemistsprecedingzosimosareknownonlybypseudonymssuchasmosesisiscleopatrademocritusandostanesothersauthorssuchaskomariosandchymesweonlyknowthroughfragmentsoftextafter400cegreekalchemicalwritersoccupiedthemselvessolelyincommentingontheworksofthesepredecessorsbythemiddleoftheseventhcenturyalchemywasalmostanentirelymysticaldisciplineitwasatthattimethatkhalidibnyazidsparkeditsmigrationfromalexandriatotheislamicworldfacilitatingthetranslationandpreservationofgreekalchemicaltextsinthe8thand9thcenturiesmuchofthegrecoromanknowledgeofalchemyisnowlost
afterthefalloftheromanempirethefocusofalchemicaldevelopmentmovedtotheislamicworldmuchmoreisknownaboutislamicalchemybecauseitwasbetterdocumentedindeedmostoftheearlierwritingsthathavecomedownthroughtheyearswerepreservedasarabictranslationsthewordalchemyitselfwasderivedfromthearabicwordالكيمياءalkimiatheislamicworldwasameltingpotforalchemyplatonicandaristotelianthoughtwhichhadalreadybeensomewhatappropriatedintohermeticalsciencecontinuedtobeassimilatedduringthelate7thandearly8thcenturies
inthelate8thcenturyjabiribnhayyanknownasgeberineuropeintroducedanewapproachtoalchemybasedonscientificmethodologyandcontrolledexperimentationinthelaboratoryincontrasttotheancientgreekandegyptianalchemistswhoseworkswereoftenallegoricalandunintelligiblewithverylittleconcernforlaboratoryworkalbeitothersreservethattitleforrobertboyleorantoinelavoisierthehistorianofsciencepaulkrauswrote
jabirhimselfclearlyrecognizedandproclaimedtheimportanceofexperimentationasfollows
earlyislamicchemistssuchasjabiribnhayyanجابربنحيانinarabicgeberusinlatinusuallyrenderedinenglishasgeberalkindialkindusandmuhammadibnzakarīyarāzirasisorrhazesinlatincontributedanumberofkeychemicaldiscoveriessuchasthemuriatichydrochloricacidsulfuricandnitricacidsandmorethediscoverythataquaregiaamixtureofnitricandhydrochloricacidscoulddissolvethenoblestmetalgoldwastofueltheimaginationofalchemistsforthenextmillennium
islamicphilosophersalsomadegreatcontributionstoalchemicalhermeticismthemostinfluentialauthorinthisregardwasarguablyjabirjabirsultimategoalwastakwintheartificialcreationoflifeinthealchemicallaboratoryuptoandincludinghumanlifeheanalyzedeacharistotelianelementintermsoffourbasicqualitiesofhotnesscoldnessdrynessandmoistnessbythisreasoningthesearchforthephilosophersstonewasintroducedtowesternalchemyjabirdevelopedanelaboratenumerologywherebytherootlettersofasubstancesnameinarabicwhentreatedwithvarioustransformationsheldcorrespondencestotheelementsphysicalproperties
theelementalsystemusedinmedievalalchemyalsooriginatedwithjabirhisoriginalsystemconsistedofsevenelementswhichincludedthefiveclassicalelementsaetherairearthfireandwaterinadditiontotwochemicalelementsrepresentingthemetalssulphurthestonewhichburnswhichcharacterizedtheprincipleofcombustibilityandmercurywhichcontainedtheidealizedprincipleofmetallicpropertiesshortlythereafterthisevolvedintoeightelementswiththearabicconceptofthethreemetallicprinciplessulphurgivingflammabilityorcombustionmercurygivingvolatilityandstabilityandsaltgivingsoliditytheatomictheoryofcorpuscularianismwhereallphysicalbodiespossessaninnerandouterlayerofminuteparticlesorcorpusclesalsohasitsoriginsintheworkofjabir
duringthe9thto14thcenturiesalchemicaltheoriesfacedcriticismfromavarietyofpracticalmuslimchemistsincludingjafaralsadiqalkindusabūalrayhānalbīrūnīavicennaandibnkhalduninparticulartheywroterefutationsagainsttheideaofthetransmutationofmetals
inthisperiodthereappearedsomedeviationsfromtheaugustinianprinciplesofearlierchristianthinkerssaintanselm10331109wasabenedictinewhobelievedfaithmustprecederationalismasaugustineandmosttheologianspriortoanselmhadbelievedbutanselmputforththeopinionthatfaithandrationalismwerecompatibleandencouragedrationalisminachristiancontexthisviewssetthestageforthephilosophicalexplosiontooccurpeterabelardfollowedanselmsworklayingthefoundationforacceptanceofaristotelianthoughtbeforethefirstworksofaristotlereachedthewesthismajorinfluenceonalchemywashisbeliefthatplatonicuniversalsdidnothaveaseparateexistenceoutsideofmansconsciousnessabelardalsosystematizedtheanalysisofphilosophicalcontradictions
robertgrosseteste11701253wasapioneerofthescientifictheorythatwouldlaterbeusedandrefinedbythealchemistshetookabelardsmethodsofanalysisandaddedtheuseofobservationsexperimentationandconclusionsinmakingscientificevaluationsgrossetestealsodidmuchworktobridgeplatonicandaristotelianthinking
albertusmagnus11931280andthomasaquinas12251274werebothdominicanswhostudiedaristotleandworkedatreconcilingthedifferencesbetweenphilosophyandchristianityaquinasalsodidagreatdealofworkindevelopingthescientificmethodheevenwentasfarasclaimingthatuniversalscouldbediscoveredonlythroughlogicalreasoningandsincereasoncouldnotruninoppositiontogodreasonmustbecompatiblewiththeologythisrancontrarytothecommonlyheldplatonicbeliefthatuniversalswerefoundthroughdivineilluminationalonemagnusandaquinaswereamongthefirsttotakeuptheexaminationofalchemicaltheoryandcouldbeconsideredtobealchemiststhemselvesexceptthatthesetwodidlittleinthewayofexperimentation
thefirsttruealchemistinmedievaleuropewasrogerbaconhisworkdidasmuchforalchemyasrobertboyleswastodoforchemistryandgalileosforastronomyandphysicsbacon12141294wasanoxfordfranciscanwhoexploredopticsandlanguagesinadditiontoalchemythefranciscanidealsoftakingontheworldratherthanrejectingtheworldledtohisconvictionthatexperimentationwasmoreimportantthanreasoningofthethreewaysinwhichmenthinkthattheyacquireknowledgeofthingsauthorityreasoningandexperienceonlythelastiseffectiveandabletobringpeacetotheintellectbaconp367experimentalsciencecontrolstheconclusionsofallothersciencesitrevealstruthswhichreasoningfromgeneralprincipleswouldneverhavediscovered
baconwasnottheonlyalchemistofthehighmiddleagesbuthewasthemostsignificanthisworkswereusedbycountlessalchemistsofthefifteenththrough19thcenturiesotheralchemistsofbaconstimesharedseveraltraitsfirstandmostobviouslynearlyallweremembersoftheclergythiswassimplybecausefewpeopleoutsidetheparochialschoolshadtheeducationtoexaminethearabicderivedworksalsoalchemyatthistimewassanctionedbythechurchasagoodmethodofexploringanddevelopingtheologyalchemywasinterestingtothewidevarietyofchurchmenbecauseitofferedarationalisticviewoftheuniversewhenmenwerejustbeginningtolearnaboutrationalism
sobytheendofthe13thcenturyalchemyhaddevelopedintoafairlystructuredsystemofbeliefadeptsbelievedinthemacrocosmmicrocosmtheoriesofhermesthatistosaytheybelievedthatprocessesthataffectmineralsandothersubstancescouldhaveaneffectonthehumanbodyforexampleifonecouldlearnthesecretofpurifyinggoldonecouldusethetechniquetopurifythehumansoultheybelievedinthefourelementsandthefourqualitiesasdescribedaboveandtheyhadastrongtraditionofcloakingtheirwrittenideasinalabyrinthofcodedjargonsetwithtrapstomisleadtheuninitiatedfinallythealchemistspracticedtheirarttheyactivelyexperimentedwithchemicalsandmadeobservationsandtheoriesabouthowtheuniverseoperatedtheirentirephilosophyrevolvedaroundtheirbeliefthatmanssoulwasdividedwithinhimselfafterthefallofadambypurifyingthetwopartsofmanssoulmancouldbereunitedwithgod
inthe14thcenturytheseviewsunderwentamajorchangewilliamofockhamanoxfordfranciscanwhodiedin1349attackedthethomistviewofcompatibilitybetweenfaithandreasonhisviewwidelyacceptedtodaywasthatgodmustbeacceptedonfaithalonehecouldnotbelimitedbyhumanreasonofcoursethisviewwasnotincorrectifoneacceptedthepostulateofalimitlessgodversuslimitedhumanreasoningcapabilitybutitvirtuallyerasedalchemyfrompracticeinthefourteenthand15thcenturiespopejohnxxiiintheearly14thcenturyissuedanedictagainstalchemyandthecisterciansbannedthepracticeamongsttheirmemberswhicheffectivelyremovedallchurchpersonnelfromthepracticeofthearttheclimatechangesblackplagueandincreaseinwarfareandfaminethatcharacterizedthiscenturynodoubtalsoservedtohamperphilosophicalpursuitsingeneralinthelate14thcenturypierstheploughmanandchaucerbothpaintedunflatteringpicturesofalchemistsasthievesandliarsandin1403henryivofenglandbannedthepracticeofalchemywithoutfirstreceivingalicencetopractiseitfromtheking
oneofthesemenwhoemergedatthebeginningofthe16thcenturywasthegermanheinrichcorneliusagrippa14861535thisalchemistbelievedhimselftobeawizardcapableofsummoningspiritshisinfluencewasnegligiblebutlikeflamelheproducedwritingswhichwerereferredtobyalchemistsoflateryearsagainlikeflamelhedidmuchtochangealchemyfromamysticalphilosophytoanoccultistmagichedidkeepalivethephilosophiesoftheearlieralchemistsincludingexperimentalsciencenumerologyetcbutheaddedmagictheorywhichreinforcedtheideaofalchemyasanoccultistbeliefinspiteofallthisagrippastillconsideredhimselfachristianthoughhisviewsoftencameintoconflictwiththechurch
europeanalchemycontinuedinthiswaythroughthedawningoftherenaissancetheeraalsosawaflourishingofconartistswhowouldusechemicaltricksandsleightofhandtodemonstratethetransmutationofcommonmetalsintogoldorclaimtopossesssecretknowledgethatwithasmallinitialinvestmentwouldsurelyleadtothatgoal
howeveritisimportanttoemphasizethatthetermschemiaandalchemiawereusedassynonymsintherenaissanceandthedifferencesbetweenalchemychemistryandsmallscaleassayingandmetallurgywerenotasneatasinthepresentdaytherewereimportantoverlapsbetweenpractitionersandtryingtoclassifythemintowizardsalchemistsscientistschemistsandcraftsmenmetallurgistsisanachronistic
themostimportantnameinthisperiodisphilippusaureolusparacelsustheophrastusbombastusvonhohenheim14931541whocastalchemyintoanewformrejectingsomeoftheoccultismthathadaccumulatedovertheyearsandpromotingtheuseofobservationsandexperimentstolearnaboutthehumanbodyherejectedgnostictraditionsbutkeptmuchofthehermeticalneoplatonicandpythagoreanphilosophieshoweverhermeticalsciencehadsomucharistoteliantheorythathisrejectionofgnosticismwaspracticallymeaninglessinparticularparacelsusrejectedthemagictheoriesofagrippaandflamel
paracelsuspioneeredtheuseofchemicalsandmineralsinmedicineandwrotemanyhavesaidofalchemythatitisforthemakingofgoldandsilverformesuchisnottheaimbuttoconsideronlywhatvirtueandpowermaylieinmedicineshishermeticalviewswerethatsicknessandhealthinthebodyreliedontheharmonyofmanthemicrocosmandnaturethemacrocosmhetookanapproachdifferentfromthosebeforehimusingthisanalogynotinthemannerofsoulpurificationbutinthemannerthathumansmusthavecertainbalancesofmineralsintheirbodiesandthatcertainillnessesofthebodyhadchemicalremediesthatcouldcurethemwhilehisattemptsoftreatingdiseaseswithsuchremediesasmercurymightseemilladvisedfromamodernpointofviewhisbasicideaofchemicallyproducedmedicineshasstoodtimesurprisinglywellalchemybecameknownasthespagyricartaftergreekwordsmeaningtoseparateandtojointogetherthewordprobablybeingcoinedbyparacelsuscomparethiswithoneofthedictumsofalchemyinlatinsolveetcoagulaseparateandjointogetherordissolveandcoagulate
atthebeginningofthe16thcenturykingjamesivofscotlandkeptanalchemistjohndamianandafurnaceofthequintessenceinstirlingcastleinenglandthetopicofalchemyinthattimeframeisoftenassociatedwithdoctorjohndee13july1527december1608betterknownforhisroleasastrologercryptographerandgeneralscientificconsultanttoqueenelizabethideewasconsideredanauthorityontheworksofrogerbaconandwasinterestedenoughinalchemytowriteabookonthatsubjectmonashieroglyphica1564influencedbythekabbalahdeesassociateedwardkelleywhoclaimedtoconversewithangelsthroughacrystalballandtoownapowderthatwouldturnmercuryintogoldmayhavebeenthesourceofthepopularimageofthealchemistcharlatan
rudolfiiholyromanemperorinthelate16thcenturysponsoredvariousalchemistsintheirworkathiscourtinpragueoneofwhichwasaparticularalchemistnamededwardkelleykelleyhadbeenaprotegeeofjohndeeinengland
anotherlesserknownalchemistwasmichaelsendivogiusmichałsędziwój15661636apolishalchemistphilosophermedicaldoctorandpioneerofchemistryaccordingtosomeaccountshedistilledoxygeninalabsometimearound1600170yearsbeforescheeleandpriestleybywarmingnitresaltpetrehethoughtofthegasgivenoffastheelixiroflifeshortlyafterdiscoveringthismethoditisbelievedthatsendivogioustaughthistechniquetocorneliusdrebbelin1621drebbelpracticallyappliedthisinasubmarine
tychobrahe15461601betterknownforhisastronomicalandastrologicalinvestigationswasalsoanalchemisthehadalaboratorybuiltforthatpurposeathisuraniborgobservatoryresearchinstitute
uptothe17thcenturyalchemywaspracticedbyscientistssuchasisaacnewtonwhodevotedconsiderablymoreofhiswritingtothestudyofalchemyseeisaacnewtonsoccultstudiesthanhedidtoeitheropticsorphysicsotheralchemistsofthewesternworldwhowereeminentintheirotherstudiesincluderogerbaconandtychobrahe
thedemiseofwesternalchemywasbroughtaboutbytheriseofmodernsciencewithitsemphasisonrigorousquantitativeexperimentationanditsdisdainforancientwisdomalthoughtheseedsoftheseeventswereplantedasearlyasthe17thcenturyalchemystillflourishedforsometwohundredyearsandinfactmayhavereacheditsapogeeinthe18thcenturyaslateas1781jamespriceclaimedtohaveproducedapowderthatcouldtransmutemercuryintosilverorgold
robertboyle16271691betterknownforhisstudiesofgasescfboyleslawpioneeredthescientificmethodinchemicalinvestigationsheassumednothinginhisexperimentsandcompiledeverypieceofrelevantdatainatypicalexperimentboylewouldnotetheplaceinwhichtheexperimentwascarriedoutthewindcharacteristicsthepositionofthesunandmoonandthebarometerreadingalljustincasetheyprovedtoberelevantthisapproacheventuallyledtothefoundingofmodernchemistryinthe18thand19thcenturiesbasedonrevolutionarydiscoveriesoflavoisierandjohndaltonwhichfinallyprovidedalogicalquantitativeandreliableframeworkforunderstandingmattertransmutationsandrevealedthefutilityoflongstandingalchemicalgoalssuchasthephilosophersstone
meanwhileparacelsianalchemyledtothedevelopmentofmodernmedicineexperimentalistsgraduallyuncoveredtheworkingsofthehumanbodysuchasbloodcirculationharvey1616andeventuallytracedmanydiseasestoinfectionswithgermskochandpasteur19thcenturyorlackofnaturalnutrientsandvitaminslindeijkmanfunketalsupportedbyparalleldevelopmentsinorganicchemistrythenewscienceeasilydisplacedalchemyfromitsmedicalrolesinterpretiveandprescriptivewhiledeflatingitshopesofmiraculouselixirsandexposingtheineffectivenessoreventoxicityofitsremedies
duringtheseventeenthcenturyashortlivedsupernaturalinterpretationofalchemybecomepopularincludingsupportbyfellowsoftheroyalsocietyrobertboyleandeliasashmoleproponentsofthesupernaturalinterpretationofalchemybelievedthatthephilosophersstonemightbeusedtosummonandcommunicatewithangels
inthe17thcenturypracticalalchemystartedtoevolveintomodernchemistryasitwasrenamedbyrobertboylethefatherofmodernchemistryinhisbooktheskepticalchymistboyleattackedparacelsusandthevenerablenaturalphilosophyofaristotlewhichwastaughtatuniversitieshoweverboylesbiographersintheiremphasisthathelaidthefoundationsofmodernchemistryneglecthowsteadilyheclungtothescholasticsciencesandtoalchemyintheorypracticeanddoctrinethedeclineofalchemycontinuedinthe18thcenturywiththebirthofmodernchemistrywhichprovidedamorepreciseandreliableframeworkwithinanewviewoftheuniversebasedonrationalmaterialism
thewordsalchemyandchemistrywereusedinterchangeablyduringmostoftheseventeenthcenturyonlyduringtheeighteenthcenturywasadistinctiondrawnrigidlybetweenthetwo
duringtheoccultrevivaloftheearlynineteenthcenturyalchemyreceivednewattentionasanoccultscience
inthenineteenthcenturyrevivalofalchemythetwomostseminalfiguresweremaryanneatwoodandethanallenhitchcockwhoindependentlypublishedsimilarworksregardingspiritualalchemybothforwardedacompletelyesotericviewofalchemyasatwoodclaimednomodernartorchemistrynotwithstandingallitssurreptitiousclaimshasanythingincommonwithalchemyatwoodsworkinfluencedsubsequentauthorsoftheoccultrevivalincludingeliphasleviarthuredwardwaiteandrudolfsteinerhitchcockinhisremarksuponalchymists1855attemptedtomakeacaseforhisspiritualinterpretationwithhisclaimthatthealchemistswroteaboutaspiritualdisciplineunderamaterialisticguiseinordertoavoidaccusationsofblasphemyfromthechurchandstate
thusassciencesteadilycontinuedtouncoverandrationalizetheclockworkoftheuniversefoundedonitsownmaterialisticmetaphysicsalchemywasleftdeprivedofitschemicalandmedicalconnectionsbutstillincurablyburdenedbythemreducedtoanarcanephilosophicalsystempoorlyconnectedtothematerialworlditsufferedthecommonfateofotheresotericdisciplinessuchasastrologyandkabbalahexcludedfromuniversitycurriculashunnedbyitsformerpatronsostracizedbyscientistsandcommonlyviewedastheepitomeofcharlatanismandsuperstitionthesedevelopmentscouldbeinterpretedaspartofabroaderreactionineuropeanintellectualismagainsttheromanticmovementoftheprecedingcenturies
accordingtomulthaufampgilbert2008
significantprogressinalchemywasmadeinancientindiawilldurantwroteinourorientalheritage
an11thcenturypersianchemistandphysiciannamedabūrayhānbīrūnīreportedthattheyhaveasciencesimilartoalchemywhichisquitepeculiartothemwhichinsanskritiscalledrasayānaandinpersianrasavātamitmeanstheartofobtainingmanipulatingrasanectarmercuryjuicethisartwasrestrictedtocertainoperationsmetalsdrugscompoundsandmedicinesmanyofwhichhavemercuryastheircoreelementitsprinciplesrestoredthehealthofthosewhowereillbeyondhopeandgavebackyouthtofadingoldageonethingissurethoughindianalchemylikeeveryotherindianscienceisfocusedonfindingmokshaperfectionimmortalityliberationassuchitfocusesitseffortsontransmutationofthehumanbodyfrommortaltoimmortalmanyarethetraditionalstoriesofalchemistsstillalivesincetimeimmemorialduetotheeffectsoftheirexperiments
thetextsofayurvedicmedicineandsciencehaveaspectssimilartoalchemyconceptsofcuresforallknowndiseasesandtreatmentsthatfocusonanointingthebodywithoils
sincealchemyeventuallybecameengrainedinthevastfieldofindianeruditioninfluencesfromothermetaphysicalandphilosophicaldoctrinessuchassamkhyayogavaisheshikaandayurvedawereinevitablenonethelessmostoftherasayānatextstracktheiroriginsbacktokaulatantricschoolsassociatedtotheteachingsofthepersonalityofmatsyendranath
therasayānawasunderstoodbyveryfewpeopleatthetimetwofamousexampleswerenagarjunacharyaandnityanadhiyanagarjunacharyawasabuddhistmonkwhoinancienttimesranthegreatuniversityofnagarjunasagarhisfamousbookrasaratanakaramisafamousexampleofearlyindianmedicineintraditionalindianmedicinalterminologyrasatranslatesasmercuryandnagarjunacharyawassaidtohavedevelopedamethodtoconvertthemercuryintogoldmuchofhisoriginalwritingsarelosttousbuthisteachingsstillhavestronginfluenceontraditionalindianmedicineayurvedatothisday
whereaswesternalchemyeventuallycenteredonthetransmutationofbasemetalsintonobleoneschinesealchemyhadamoreobviousconnectiontomedicinethephilosophersstoneofeuropeanalchemistscanbecomparedtothegrandelixirofimmortalitysoughtbychinesealchemistshoweverinthehermeticviewthesetwogoalswerenotunconnectedandthephilosophersstonewasoftenequatedwiththeuniversalpanaceathereforethetwotraditionsmayhavehadmoreincommonthaninitiallyappears
blackpowdermayhavebeenanimportantinventionofchinesealchemistsdescribedin9thcenturytextsandusedinfireworksinchinabythe10thcenturyitwasusedincannonsby1290fromchinatheuseofgunpowderspreadtojapanthemongolsthearabworldandeuropegunpowderwasusedbythemongolsagainstthehungariansin1241andineuropebythe14thcentury
chinesealchemywascloselyconnectedtotaoistformsoftraditionalchinesemedicinesuchasacupunctureandmoxibustionandtomartialartssuchastaichichuanandkungfualthoughsometaichischoolsbelievethattheirartderivesfromthephilosophicalorhygienicbranchesoftaoismnotalchemicalinfactintheearlysongdynastyfollowersofthistaoistideachieflytheeliteandupperclasswouldingestmercuricsulfidewhichthoughtolerableinlowlevelsledmanytosuicidethinkingthatthisconsequentialdeathwouldleadtofreedomandaccesstothetaoistheavenstheensuingdeathsencouragedpeopletoeschewthismethodofalchemyinfavorofexternalsourcestheaforementionedtaichichuanmasteringoftheqietc
thehistoryofalchemyhasbecomeasignificantandrecognizedsubjectofacademicstudyasthelanguageofthealchemistsisanalyzedhistoriansarebecomingmoreawareoftheintellectualconnectionsbetweenthatdisciplineandotherfacetsofwesternculturalhistorysuchastheevolutionofscienceandphilosophythesociologyandpsychologyoftheintellectualcommunitieskabbalismspiritualismrosicrucianismandothermysticmovementsinstitutionsinvolvedinthisresearchincludethechymistryofisaacnewtonprojectatindianauniversitytheuniversityofexetercentreforthestudyofesotericismexesesotheeuropeansocietyforthestudyofwesternesotericismessweandtheuniversityofamsterdamssubdepartmentforthehistoryofhermeticphilosophyandrelatedcurrentsalargecollectionofbooksonalchemyiskeptinthebibliothecaphilosophicahermeticainamsterdam
duetothecomplexityandobscurityofalchemicalliteratureandtheeighteenthcenturydisappearanceofremainingalchemicalpractitionersintotheareaofchemistrythegeneralunderstandingofalchemyinthegeneralpublicmodernpractitionersandalsomanyhistoriansofsciencehavebeenstronglyinfluencedbyseveraldistinctandradicallydifferentinterpretationshundredsofbooksincludingadulteratedtranslationsofclassicalalchemicalliteraturewerepublishedthroughouttheearlynineteenthcentury
esotericinterpretationsofalchemyremainsstrongtothisdayandcontinuetoinfluenceboththepublicandacademicperceptionsofthehistoryofalchemytodaynumerousesotericalchemicalgroupscontinuetoperpetuatemoderninterpretationsofalchemysometimesmerginginconceptsfromnewageorradicalenvironmentalismmovementsrosencrutziansandfreemasonshaveacontinuedinterestinalchemyanditssymbolism
traditionalmedicinesometimesinvolvesthetransmutationofnaturalsubstancesusingpharmacologicaloracombinationofpharmacologicalandspiritualtechniquesinayurvedathesamskarasareusedtotransformheavymetalsandtoxicherbsinawaythatremovestheiryositheseprocessesareactivelyusedtothepresentday
twentiethcenturyspagyristsalbertrichardriedelandjeandubuismergedparacelsianalchemywithoccultismteachinglaboratorypharmaceuticalmethodstheschoolstheyfoundedlesphilosophesdelanatureandtheparacelsusresearchsocietypopularizedmodernspagyricsincludingthemanufactureofherbaltincturesandproductsthecoursesbooksorganizationsandconferencesgeneratedbytheirstudentscontinuetoinfluencepopularapplicationsofalchemyasanewagemedicinalpractice
in1919ernestrutherfordusedartificialdisintegrationtoconvertnitrogenintooxygenfromthenonthissortofscientifictransmutationisroutinelyperformedinmanynuclearphysicsrelatedlaboratoriesandfacilitieslikeparticleacceleratorsnuclearpowerstationsandnuclearweaponsasabyproductoffissionandotherphysicalprocesses
thesynthesisofnoblemetalsenjoyedbriefpopularityinthe20thcenturywhenphysicistswereabletoconvertplatinumatomsintogoldatomsviaanuclearreactionhoweverthenewgoldatomsbeingunstableisotopeslastedforunderfivesecondsbeforetheybrokeapartmorerecentlyreportsoftabletopelementtransmutationbymeansofelectrolysisorsoniccavitationwerethepivotofthecoldfusioncontroversyof1989noneofthoseclaimshaveyetbeenreliablyduplicated
synthesisofnoblemetalsrequireseitheranuclearreactororaparticleacceleratorparticleacceleratorsusehugeamountsofenergywhilenuclearreactorsproduceenergysoonlymethodsutilizinganuclearreactorareofeconomicinterest
alchemicalsymbolismhasbeenusedbypsychologistssuchascarljungwhoreexaminedalchemicalsymbolismandtheoryandpresentedtheinnermeaningofalchemicalworkasaspiritualpathjungwasdeeplyinterestedintheoccultsincehisyouthparticipatinginseanceswhichheusedasthebasisforhisdoctoraldissertationonthepsychologyandpathologyofsocalledoccultphenomenain1913junghadalreadyadoptedaspiritualistandredemptiveinterpretationofalchemylikelyreflectinghisinterestintheoccultliteratureofthenineteenthcenturyjungbeganwritinghisviewsonalchemyfromthe1920sandcontinueduntiltheendofhislifehisinterpretationofchinesealchemicaltextsintermsofhisanalyticalpsychologyalsoservedthefunctionofcomparingeasternandwesternalchemicalimageryandcoreconceptsandhenceitspossibleinnersourcesarchetypes
jungsawalchemyasawesternprotopsychologydedicatedtotheachievementofindividuationaconceptalsofollowedbyotherssuchasstephanahoellerinthissensejungviewedalchemyascomparabletoayogaoftheeastandmoreadequatetothewesternmindthaneasternreligionsandphilosophiesthepracticeofalchemyseemedtochangethemindandspiritofthealchemistconverselyspontaneouschangesonthemindofwesternpeopleundergoinganyimportantstageinindividuationseemstoproduceonoccasionimageryknowntoalchemyandrelevanttothepersonssituationjungdidnotcompletelyrejectthematerialexperimentsofthealchemistsbuthemassivelydownplayeditwritingthatthetransmutationwasperformedinthemindofthealchemistheclaimedthematerialsubstancesandprocedureswereonlyaprojectionofthealchemistsinternalstatewhiletherealsubstancetobetransformedwastheminditself
marielouisevonfranzadiscipleofjungcontinuedjungsstudiesonalchemyanditspsychologicalmeaningjungsworkexercisedagreatinfluenceonthemainstreamperceptionofalchemyhisapproachbecomingastockelementinmanypopulartextsonthesubjecttothisdaymodernscholarsaresometimescriticalofthejungianapproachtoalchemyasoverlyreflectiveofnineteenthcenturyoccultism
thegreatworkofalchemyisoftendescribedasaseriesoffourstagesrepresentedbycolors
historicallyastronomywasmoreconcernedwiththeclassificationanddescriptionofphenomenaintheskywhileastrophysicsattemptedtoexplainthesephenomenaandthedifferencesbetweenthemusingphysicallawstodaythatdistinctionhasmostlydisappearedandthetermsastronomerandastrophysicistareinterchangeableprofessionalastronomersarehighlyeducatedindividualswhotypicallyhaveaphdinphysicsorastronomyandareemployedbyresearchinstitutionsoruniversitiestheyspendthemajorityoftheirtimeworkingonresearchalthoughtheyquiteoftenhaveotherdutiessuchasteachingbuildinginstrumentsoraidingintheoperationofanobservatorythenumberofprofessionalastronomersintheunitedstatesisactuallyquitesmalltheamericanastronomicalsocietywhichisthemajororganizationofprofessionalastronomersinnorthamericahasapproximately7700membersthisnumberincludesscientistsfromotherfieldssuchasphysicsgeologyandengineeringwhoseresearchinterestsarecloselyrelatedtoastronomytheinternationalastronomicalunioncomprisesalmost10145membersfrom70differentcountrieswhoareinvolvedinastronomicalresearchatthephdlevelandbeyond
whilethenumberofprofessionalastronomersworldwideisnotmuchlargerthanthepopulationofasmalltownthereisahugecommunityofamateurastronomersmostcitieshaveamateurastronomyclubsthatmeetonaregularbasisandoftenhoststarpartiesintheircommunitiestheastronomicalsocietyofthepacificisthelargestgeneralastronomicalsocietyintheworldcomprisingbothprofessionalandamateurastronomersaswellaseducatorsfrom70differentnationslikeanyhobbymostpeoplewhothinkofthemselvesasamateurastronomersmaydevoteafewhoursamonthtostargazingandreadingthelatestdevelopmentsinresearchhoweveramateursspantherangefromsocalledarmchairastronomerstotheveryambitiouswhoownsciencegradetelescopesandinstrumentswithwhichtheyareabletomaketheirowndiscoveriesandassistprofessionalastronomersinresearch
contrarytotheclassicalimageofanoldastronomerpeeringthroughatelescopethroughthedarkhoursofthenightitisveryrareforamodernprofessionalastronomertouseaneyepieceonalargertelescopeitisfarmorecommontouseachargecoupleddevicecameratorecordalongdeepexposureallowingamoresensitiveimagetobecreatedbecausethelightisaddedovertimebeforeccdsphotographicplateswereacommonmethodofobservationmodernastronomersspendrelativelylittletimeattelescopesmostspendafewweeksperyearobservingandtherestoftheirtimereducingthedatachangingitfromrawdatatoprocessedimagesandanalyzingitmanyastronomersworkentirelyfromastronomicalsurveyorspaceobservatorydataothersworkwithradiotelescopesliketheverylargearraywhichisentirelyautomatedalthoughitismaintainedbytelescopeoperators
astronomerswhoserveasfacultyspendmuchoftheirtimeteachingundergraduateandgraduateclassesmostuniversitiesalsohaveoutreachprogramsincludingpublictelescopetimeandsometimesplanetariumsasapublicserviceandtoencourageinterestinthefield
amoeboidandamœbaareoftenusedinterchangeablyevenbybiologists
amoeboidsmoveusingpseudopodiawhicharebulgesofcytoplasm
amoebasbreatheusingtheirentirecellmembranethatisconstantlyimmersedinwaterexcesswatercancrossintothecytosolamoebashaveacontractilevacuoletoexpelexcesswater
foodsourcesvaryinrhizopodatheymayconsumebacteriaorotherprotistssomearedetritivoresandeatdeadorganicmaterialtheyextendapairofpseudopodiaaroundfoodtheyfusetomakeafoodvacuolewhichthenfuseswithalysosometoadddigestivechemicalsundigestedfoodisexpelledatthecellmembrane
amoebasusepseudopodiatomoveandfeedtheyarepoweredbyflexiblemicrofilamentsnearthemembranemicrofilamentsareatleast50ofthecytoskeletontheotherpartsaremorestiffandarecomposedofintermediatefilamentsandmacrotubulesthesearenotusedinamoeboidmovementbutarestiffskeletonsonwhichorganellesaresupportedorcanmoveon
theshellsofamoebasareoftencomposedofcalciumtheproteinsormaterialsaresynthesisedinthecellandexportedjustoutsidethecellmembrane
amoebasseemtohaveconnectionswithtwophylaofthelineagefunguslikeprotiststhetwophylaaremyxomycotaplasmodialslimemoldsandacrasiomycotacellularslimemoldsthesetwophylauseamoeboidmovementintheirfeedingstageoneisbasicallyagiantmultinucleateamoebawhiletheotherlivessolitaryuntilfoodrunsoutinwhichacolonyofthesefunctionsasaunitmyxomycotesuseamoeboidgametesaswell
theyhaveappearedinanumberofdifferentgroupssomecellsinmulticellularanimalsmaybeamoeboidforinstancehumanwhitebloodcellswhichconsumepathogensmanyprotistsalsoexistasindividualamoeboidcellsortakesuchaformatsomepointintheirlifecyclethemostfamoussuchorganismisamoebaproteusthenameamoebaisvariouslyusedtodescribeitscloserelativesotherorganismssimilartoitortheamoeboidsingeneral
asamoebasthemselvesarepolyphyleticandsubjecttosomeimprecisionindefinitionthetermamoeboiddoesnotprovideidentificationofanorganismandisbetterunderstoodasdescriptionoflocomotion
whenusedinthebroadersensethetermcanincludemanydifferentgroupsonesourceincludes97differentgeneraothersincludefarfewer
inolderclassificationsystemsamoeboidshavebeendividedintoseveralmorphologicalcategoriesbasedontheformandstructureofthepseudopodsthosewherethepseudopodsaresupportedbyregulararraysofmicrotubulesarecalledactinopodsandformswheretheyarenotarecalledrhizopodsfurtherdividedintolobosefiloseandreticuloseamoebaethereisalsoastrangegroupofgiantmarineamoeboidsthexenophyophoresthatdonotfallintoanyofthesecategories
moremodernclassificationsarebaseduponcladisticsithasbeenstatedthatmostamoeboidarenowgroupedinamoebozoaorrhizariahoweverincontextswhereamoeboidisdefinedmorelooselytherearemanyamoeboidspeciesthatareintheexcavataclade
phylogeneticanalysesplacethesegeneraintothefollowinggroupsnotalloftheseareconsideredamoeboidoramoebasbyallsources
whilemostmorphologiescanbemappedtomodernclassificationsystemstheoldergroupingactinopodsispolyphyleticactinopodsaredividedintotheradiolariaandheliozoaitselfapolyphyleticgrouping
someamoeboidscaninfectotherorganismspathogenicallycausingdisease
thumb
usasciiistheinternetassignednumbersauthorityianapreferredcharsetnameforascii
historicallyasciidevelopedfromtelegraphiccodesitsfirstcommercialusewasasasevenbitteleprintercodepromotedbybelldataservicesworkonasciiformallybeganonoctober61960withthefirstmeetingoftheamericanstandardsassociationsasax32subcommitteethefirsteditionofthestandardwaspublishedduring1963amajorrevisionduring1967andthemostrecentupdateduring1986comparedtoearliertelegraphcodestheproposedbellcodeandasciiwerebothorderedformoreconvenientsortingiealphabetizationoflistsandaddedfeaturesfordevicesotherthanteleprinters
asciiincludesdefinitionsfor128characters33arenonprintingcontrolcharactersnowmostlyobsoletethataffecthowtextandspaceisprocessed94areprintablecharactersandthespaceisconsideredaninvisiblegraphic
thex32subcommitteedesignedasciibasedonearlierteleprinterencodingsystemslikeothercharacterencodingsasciispecifiesacorrespondencebetweendigitalbitpatternsandcharactersymbolsiegraphemesandcontrolcharactersthisallowsdigitaldevicestocommunicatewitheachotherandtoprocessstoreandcommunicatecharacterorientedinformationsuchaswrittenlanguagebeforeasciiwasdevelopedtheencodingsinuseincluded26alphabeticcharacters10numericaldigitsandfrom11to25specialgraphicsymbolstoincludealltheseandcontrolcharacterscompatiblewiththecomitéconsultatifinternationaltéléphoniqueettélégraphiquestandardfieldataandearlyebcdicmorethan64codeswererequiredforascii
thecommitteedebatedthepossibilityofashiftkeyfunctionlikethebaudotcodewhichwouldallowmorethan64codestoberepresentedbysixbitsinashiftedcodesomecharactercodesdeterminechoicesbetweenoptionsforthefollowingcharactercodesitallowscompactencodingbutislessreliablefordatatransmissionanerrorintransmittingtheshiftcodetypicallymakesalongpartofthetransmissionunreadablethestandardscommitteedecidedagainstshiftingandsoasciirequiredatleastasevenbitcode
thecommitteeconsideredaneightbitcodesinceeightbitsoctetswouldallowtwofourbitpatternstoefficientlyencodetwodigitswithbinarycodeddecimalhoweveritwouldrequirealldatatransmissiontosendeightbitswhensevencouldsufficethecommitteevotedtouseasevenbitcodetominimizecostsassociatedwithdatatransmissionsinceperforatedtapeatthetimecouldrecordeightbitsinonepositionitalsoallowedforaparitybitforerrorcheckingifdesiredeightbitmachineswithoctetsasthenativedatatypethatdidnotuseparitycheckingtypicallysettheeighthbitto0
thecodeitselfwaspatternedsothatmostcontrolcodesweretogetherandallgraphiccodesweretogetherforeaseofidentificationthefirsttwocolumns32positionswerereservedforcontrolcharactersthespacecharacterhadtocomebeforegraphicstomakesortingeasiersoitbecameposition0x20forthesamereasonmanyspecialsignscommonlyusedasseparatorswereplacedbeforedigitsthecommitteedecideditwasimportanttosupportuppercase64characteralphabetsandchosetopatternasciisoitcouldbereducedeasilytoausable64charactersetofgraphiccodeslowercaseletterswerethereforenotinterleavedwithuppercasetokeepoptionsavailableforlowercaselettersandothergraphicsthespecialandnumericcodeswerearrangedbeforethelettersandtheletterawasplacedinposition0x41tomatchthedraftofthecorrespondingbritishstandardthedigits09werearrangedsotheycorrespondtovaluesinbinaryprefixedwith011makingconversionwithbinarycodeddecimalstraightforward
manyofthenonalphanumericcharacterswerepositionedtocorrespondtotheirshiftedpositionontypewritersthusandwereplacedtocorrespondto34and5intheadjacentcolumntheparenthesescouldnotcorrespondto9and0howeverbecausetheplacecorrespondingto0wastakenbythespacecharactersincemanyeuropeantypewritersplacedtheparentheseswith8and9thosecorrespondingpositionswerechosenfortheparenthesesthesymbolwasnotusedincontinentaleuropeandthecommitteeexpecteditwouldbereplacedbyanaccentedàinthefrenchvariationsothewasplacedinposition0x40nexttothelettera
thecontrolcodesfeltessentialfordatatransmissionwerethestartofmessagesomendofaddresseoaendofmessageeomendoftransmissioneotwhoareyouwruareyouruareserveddevicecontroldc0synchronousidlesyncandacknowledgeackthesewerepositionedtomaximizethehammingdistancebetweentheirbitpatterns
withtheotherspecialcharactersandcontrolcodesfilledinasciiwaspublishedasasax341963leaving28codepositionswithoutanyassignedmeaningreservedforfuturestandardizationandoneunassignedcontrolcodetherewassomedebateatthetimewhetherthereshouldbemorecontrolcharactersratherthanthelowercasealphabettheindecisiondidnotlastlongduringmay1963theccittworkingpartyonthenewtelegraphalphabetproposedtoassignlowercasecharacterstocolumns6and7andinternationalorganizationforstandardizationtc97sc2votedduringoctobertoincorporatethechangeintoitsdraftstandardthex324taskgroupvoteditsapprovalforthechangetoasciiatitsmay1963meetinglocatingthelowercaselettersincolumns6and7causedthecharacterstodifferinbitpatternfromtheuppercasebyasinglebitwhichsimplifiedcaseinsensitivecharactermatchingandtheconstructionofkeyboardsandprinters
thex3committeemadeotherchangesincludingothernewcharactersthebraceandverticallinecharactersrenamingsomecontrolcharacterssombecamestartofheadersohandmovingorremovingothersruwasremovedasciiwassubsequentlyupdatedasusasix341967thenusasix341968ansix341977andfinallyansix341986thefirsttwoareoccasionallyretronamedansix341967andansix341968
thex3committeealsoaddressedhowasciishouldbetransmittedleastsignificantbitfirstandhowitshouldberecordedonperforatedtapetheyproposeda9trackstandardformagnetictapeandattemptedtodealwithsomeformsofpunchedcardformats
asciiitselfwasfirstusedcommerciallyduring1963asasevenbitteleprintercodeforamericantelephoneamptelegraphstwxteletypewriterexchangenetworktwxoriginallyusedtheearlierfivebitbaudotcodewhichwasalsousedbythecompetingtelexteleprintersystembobbemerintroducedfeaturessuchastheescapesequencebecauseofhisextensiveworkonasciibemerhasbeencalledthefatherofascii
otherinternationalstandardsbodieshaveratifiedcharacterencodingssuchasisoiec646thatareidenticalornearlyidenticaltoasciiwithextensionsforcharactersoutsidetheenglishalphabetandsymbolsusedoutsidetheunitedstatessuchasthesymbolfortheunitedkingdomspoundsterlingalmosteverycountryneededanadaptedversionofasciisinceasciionlysuitedtheneedsoftheusaandafewothercountriesforexamplecanadahaditsownversionthatsupportedfrenchcharactersotheradaptedencodingsincludeisciiindiavisciivietnamandyusciiyugoslaviaalthoughtheseencodingsaresometimesreferredtoasasciitrueasciiisdefinedstrictlyonlybyansistandard
asciiwasincorporatedintotheunicodecharactersetasthefirst128symbolssotheasciicharactershavethesamenumericcodesinbothsetsthisallowsutf8tobebackwardcompatiblewithasciiasignificantadvantage
asciireservesthefirst32codesnumbers031decimalforcontrolcharacterscodesoriginallyintendednottorepresentprintableinformationbutrathertocontroldevicessuchasprintersthatmakeuseofasciiortoprovidemetainformationaboutdatastreamssuchasthosestoredonmagnetictapeforexamplecharacter10representsthelinefeedfunctionwhichcausesaprintertoadvanceitspaperandcharacter8representsbackspacerfc2822referstocontrolcharactersthatdonotincludecarriagereturnlinefeedorwhitespaceasnonwhitespacecontrolcharactersexceptforthecontrolcharactersthatprescribeelementarylineorientedformattingasciidoesnotdefineanymechanismfordescribingthestructureorappearanceoftextwithinadocumentotherschemessuchasmarkuplanguagesaddresspageanddocumentlayoutandformatting
theoriginalasciistandardusedonlyshortdescriptivephrasesforeachcontrolcharactertheambiguitythiscausedwassometimesintentionalwhereacharacterwouldbeusedslightlydifferentlyonaterminallinkthanonadatastreamandsometimesaccidentalsuchaswhatdeletemeans
probablythemostinfluentialsingledeviceontheinterpretationofthesecharacterswastheteletypemodel33asrserieswhichwasaprintingterminalwithanavailablepapertapereaderpunchoptionpapertapewasaverypopularmediumforlongtermprogramstoragethroughthe1980slesscostlyandinsomewayslessfragilethanmagnetictapeinparticulartheteletypemodel33machineassignmentsforcodes17controlqdc1alsoknownasxon19controlsdc3alsoknownasxoffand127deletebecamedefactostandardsbecausethekeytopfortheokeyalsoshowedaleftarrowsymbolfromascii1963whichhadthischaracterinsteadofunderscoreanoncompliantuseofcode15controloshiftininterpretedasdeletepreviouscharacterwasalsoadoptedbymanyearlytimesharingsystemsbuteventuallybecameneglected
theuseofcontrolsxoffanabbreviationfortransmitoffasahandshakingsignalwarningasendertostoptransmissionbecauseofimpendingoverflowandcontrolqxontransmitontoresumesendingpersiststothisdayinmanysystemsasamanualoutputcontroltechniqueonsomesystemscontrolsretainsitsmeaningbutcontrolqisreplacedbyasecondcontrolstoresumeoutput
code127isofficiallynameddeletebuttheteletypelabelwasruboutsincetheoriginalstandarddidnotgivedetailedinterpretationformostcontrolcodesinterpretationsofthiscodevariedtheoriginalteletypemeaningandtheintentofthestandardwastomakeitanignoredcharacterthesameasnulallzeroesthiswasusefulspecificallyforpapertapebecausepunchingtheallonesbitpatternontopofanexistingmarkwouldobliterateittapesdesignedtobehandeditedcouldevenbeproducedwithspacesofextranulsblanktapesothatablockofcharacterscouldberubbedoutandthenreplacementsputintotheemptyspace
asvideoterminalsbegantoreplaceprintingonesthevalueoftheruboutcharacterwaslostdecsystemsforexampleinterpreteddeletetomeanremovethecharacterbeforethecursorandthisinterpretationalsobecamecommoninunixsystemsmostothersystemsusedbackspaceforthatmeaninganduseddeletetomeanremovethecharacteratthecursorthatlatterinterpretationisthemostcommonnow
manymoreofthecontrolcodeshavebeengivenmeaningsquitedifferentfromtheiroriginalonestheescapecharacteresccode27forexamplewasintendedoriginallytoallowsendingothercontrolcharactersasliteralsinsteadofinvokingtheirmeaningthisisthesamemeaningofescapeencounteredinurlencodingsclanguagestringsandothersystemswherecertaincharactershaveareservedmeaningovertimethismeaninghasbeencooptedandhaseventuallybeenchangedinmodernuseanescsenttotheterminalusuallyindicatesthestartofacommandsequenceusuallyintheformofasocalledansiescapecodeormoreproperlyacontrolsequenceintroducerbeginningwithescfollowedbyaleftbracketcharacteranescsentfromtheterminalismostoftenusedasanoutofbandcharacterusedtoterminateanoperationasinthetecoandvitexteditorsingraphicaluserinterfaceguiandwindowingsystemsescgenerallycausesanapplicationtoabortitscurrentoperationortoexitterminatealtogether
theinherentambiguityofmanycontrolcharacterscombinedwiththeirhistoricalusagecreatedproblemswhentransferringplaintextfilesbetweensystemsthebestexampleofthisisthenewlineproblemonvariousoperatingsystemsteletypemachinesrequiredthatalineoftextbeterminatedwithbothcarriagereturnandlinefeedthefirstreturnstheprintingcarriagetothebeginningofthelineandthesecondadvancestothenextlinewithoutmovingthecarriagehoweverrequiringtwocharacterstomarktheendofalineintroducedunnecessarycomplexityandquestionsastohowtointerpreteachcharacterwhenencounteredalonetosimplifymattersplaintextfilesonunixandamigasystemsuselinefeedsalonetoseparatelinessimilarlyoldermacintoshsystemsamongothersuseonlycarriagereturnsinplaintextfilesvariousibmoperatingsystemsusedbothcharacterstomarktheendofalineperhapsforcompatibilitywithteletypemachinesthisdefactostandardwascopiedintocpmandthenintomsdosandeventuallyintomicrosoftwindowstransmissionoftextovertheinternetforprotocolsasemailandtheworldwidewebusesbothcharacters
someoperatingsystemssuchastheprevmsdecoperatingsystemsalongwithcpmtrackedfilelengthonlyinunitsofdiskblocksandusedcontrolzsubtomarktheendoftheactualtextinthefileforthisreasoneoforendoffilewasusedcolloquiallyandconventionallyasathreeletteracronymtlaforcontrolzinsteadofsubstituteforavarietyofreasonstheendoftextcodeetxakacontrolcwasinappropriateandusingzasthecontrolcodetoendafileisanalogoustoitendingthealphabetaveryconvenientmnemonicaidtextstringsendingwiththenullcharacterareknownasascizasciizorcstrings
codes0x20to0x7eknownastheprintablecharactersrepresentlettersdigitspunctuationmarksandafewmiscellaneoussymbolsthereare95printablecharactersintotal
code0x20thespacecharacterdenotesthespacebetweenwordsasproducedbythespacebarofakeyboardsincethespacecharacterisconsideredaninvisiblegraphicratherthanacontrolcharacterandthuswouldnotnormallybevisibleitisrepresentedherebyunicodecharacteru2420unicodecharactersu2422oru2423arealsoavailableforusewhenavisiblerepresentationofaspaceisnecessary
code0x7fcorrespondstothenonprintabledeletedelcontrolcharacterandisthereforeomittedfromthischartitiscoveredintheprevioussectionschart
earlierversionsofasciiusedtheuparrowinsteadofthecaret0x5e
ajune1992rfcandtheinternetassignednumbersauthorityregistryofcharactersetsrecognizethefollowingcaseinsensitivealiasesforasciiassuitableforuseontheinternet
ofthesetheianaencouragesuseofthenameusasciiforinternetusesofasciioneoftenfindsthisintheoptionalcharsetparameterinthecontenttypeheaderofsomemimemessagesintheequivalentmetaelementofsomehtmldocumentsandintheencodingdeclarationpartoftheprologueofsomexmldocuments
ascomputertechnologyspreadthroughouttheworlddifferentstandardsbodiesandcorporationsdevelopedmanyvariationsofasciitofacilitatetheexpressionofnonenglishlanguagesthatusedromanbasedalphabetsonecouldclasssomeofthesevariationsasasciiextensionsalthoughsomemisusethattermtorepresentallvariantsincludingthosethatdonotpreserveasciischaractermapinthe7bitrange
thepetsciicodecommodoreinternationalusedfortheir8bitsystemsisprobablyuniqueamongpost1970codesinbeingbasedonascii1963insteadofthemorecommonascii1967suchasfoundonthezxspectrumcomputeratariandgalaksijacomputersalsousedasciivariants
fromearlyinitsdevelopmentasciiwasintendedtobejustoneofseveralnationalvariantsofaninternationalcharactercodestandardultimatelypublishedasisoiec6461972whichwouldsharemostcharactersincommonbutassignotherlocallyusefulcharacterstoseveralcodepointsreservedfornationalusehoweverthefouryearsthatelapsedbetweenthepublicationofascii1963andisosfirstacceptanceofaninternationalrecommendationduring1967causedasciischoicesforthenationalusecharacterstoseemtobedefactostandardsfortheworldcausingconfusionandincompatibilityonceothercountriesdidbegintomaketheirownassignmentstothesecodepoints
isoiec646likeasciiwasa7bitcharactersetitdidnotmakeanyadditionalcodesavailablesothesamecodepointsencodeddifferentcharactersindifferentcountriesescapecodesweredefinedtoindicatewhichnationalvariantappliedtoapieceoftextbuttheywererarelyusedsoitwasoftenimpossibletoknowwhatvarianttoworkwithandthereforewhichcharacteracoderepresentedandtextprocessingsystemscouldgenerallycopewithonlyonevariantanyway
becausethebracketandbracecharactersofasciiwereassignedtonationalusecodepointsthatwereusedforaccentedlettersinothernationalvariantsofisoiec646agermanfrenchorswedishetcprogrammerusingtheirnationalvariantofisoiec646ratherthanasciihadtowriteandthusreadsomethingsuchasinsteadofctrigraphswerecreatedtosolvethisproblemforansicalthoughtheirlateintroductionandinconsistentimplementationincompilerslimitedtheiruse
eventuallyas816and32bitcomputersbegantoreplace18and36bitcomputersasthenormitbecamecommontousean8bitbytetostoreeachcharacterinmemoryprovidinganopportunityforextended8bitrelativesofasciiwiththe128additionalcharactersprovidingroomtoavoidmostoftheambiguitythathadbeennecessaryin7bitcodes
forexampleibmdeveloped8bitcodepagessuchascodepage437whichreplacedthecontrolcharacterswithgraphicsymbolssuchassmileyfacesandmappedadditionalgraphiccharacterstotheupper128positionsoperatingsystemssuchasdossupportedthesecodepagesandmanufacturersofibmpcssupportedtheminhardwaredigitalequipmentcorporationdevelopedthemultinationalcharactersetdecmcsforuseinthepopularvt220terminal
eightbitstandardssuchasisoiec8859derivedfromthedecmcsandmacosromandevelopedastrueextensionsofasciileavingtheoriginalcharactermappingintactbutaddingadditionalcharacterdefinitionsafterthefirst128ie7bitcharactersthisenabledrepresentationofcharactersusedinabroaderrangeoflanguagesbecausetherewereseveralcompeting8bitcodestandardstheycontinuedtosufferfromincompatibilitiesandlimitationsstilliso88591latin1itsvariantwindows1252oftenmislabeledasiso88591andtheoriginal7bitasciiremainthemostcommoncharacterencodingsinusetoday
unicodeandtheisoiec10646universalcharactersetucshaveamuchwiderarrayofcharactersandtheirvariousencodingformshavebeguntosupplantisoiec8859andasciirapidlyinmanyenvironmentswhileasciiislimitedto128charactersunicodeandtheucssupportmorecharactersbyseparatingtheconceptsofuniqueidentificationusingnaturalnumberscalledcodepointsandencodingto816or32bitbinaryformatscalledutf8utf16andutf32
toallowbackwardcompatibilitythe128asciiand256iso88591latin1charactersareassignedunicodeucscodepointsthatarethesameastheircodesintheearlierstandardsthereforeasciicanbeconsidereda7bitencodingschemeforaverysmallsubsetofunicodeucsandconverselytheutf8encodingformsarebinarycompatiblewithasciiforcodepointsbelow128meaningallasciiisvalidutf8theotherencodingformsresembleasciiinhowtheyrepresentthefirst128charactersofunicodebutuse16or32bitspercharactersotheyrequireconversionforcompatibilitysimilarlyucs2isupwardscompatiblewithutf16
asciicodeorderisalsocalledasciibeticalordercollationofdataissometimesdoneinthisorderratherthanstandardalphabeticalordercollatingsequencethemaindeviationsinasciiorderare
fromlatinanimātiōtheactofbringingtolifefromanimōtoanimateorgivelifetoātiōtheactof
a5000yearoldearthenbowlfoundiniraninshahrisokhtahasfiveimagesofagoatpaintedalongthesidesthishasbeenclaimedtobeanexampleofearlyanimationhoweversincenoequipmentexistedtoshowtheimagesinmotionsuchaseriesofimagescannotbecalledanimationinatruesenseoftheword
achinesezoetropetypedevicehadbeeninventedin180adthephenakistoscopepraxinoscopeandthecommonflipbookwereearlypopularanimationdevicesinventedduringthe19thcentury
thesedevicesproducedtheappearanceofmovementfromsequentialdrawingsusingtechnologicalmeansbutanimationdidnotreallydevelopmuchfurtheruntiltheadventofcinematography
thereisnosinglepersonwhocanbeconsideredthecreatoroffilmanimationastherewereseveralpeopleworkingonprojectswhichcouldbeconsideredanimationataboutthesametime
georgesmélièswasacreatorofspecialeffectfilmshewasgenerallyoneofthefirstpeopletouseanimationwithhistechniquehediscoveredatechniquebyaccidentwhichwastostopthecamerarollingtochangesomethinginthesceneandthencontinuerollingthefilmthisideawaslaterknownasstopmotionanimationmélièsdiscoveredthistechniqueaccidentallywhenhiscamerabrokedownwhileshootingabusdrivingbywhenhehadfixedthecameraahearsehappenedtobepassingbyjustasmélièsrestartedrollingthefilmhisendresultwasthathehadmanagedtomakeabustransformintoahearsethiswasjustoneofthegreatcontributorstoanimationintheearlyyears
theearliestsurvivingstopmotionadvertisingfilmwasanenglishshortbyarthurmelbournecoopercalledmatchesanappeal1899developedforthebryantandmaymatchstickscompanyitinvolvedstopmotionanimationofwiredtogethermatcheswritingapatrioticcalltoactiononablackboard
jstuartblacktonwaspossiblythefirstamericanfilmmakertousethetechniquesofstopmotionandhanddrawnanimationintroducedtofilmmakingbyedisonhepioneeredtheseconceptsattheturnofthe20thcenturywithhisfirstcopyrightedworkdated1900severalofhisfilmsamongthemtheenchanteddrawing1900andhumorousphasesoffunnyfaces1906werefilmversionsofblacktonslightningartistroutineandutilizedmodifiedversionsofmélièsearlystopmotiontechniquestomakeaseriesofblackboarddrawingsappeartomoveandreshapethemselveshumorousphasesoffunnyfacesisregularlycitedasthefirsttrueanimatedfilmandblacktonisconsideredthefirsttrueanimator
anotherfrenchartistémilecohlbegandrawingcartoonstripsandcreatedafilmin1908calledfantasmagoriethefilmlargelyconsistedofastickfiguremovingaboutandencounteringallmannerofmorphingobjectssuchasawinebottlethattransformsintoaflowertherewerealsosectionsofliveactionwheretheanimatorshandswouldenterthescenethefilmwascreatedbydrawingeachframeonpaperandthenshootingeachframeontonegativefilmwhichgavethepictureablackboardlookthismakesfantasmagoriethefirstanimatedfilmcreatedusingwhatcametobeknownastraditionalhanddrawnanimation
followingthesuccessesofblacktonandcohlmanyotherartistsbeganexperimentingwithanimationonesuchartistwaswinsormccayasuccessfulnewspapercartoonistwhocreateddetailedanimationsthatrequiredateamofartistsandpainstakingattentionfordetaileachframewasdrawnonpaperwhichinvariablyrequiredbackgroundsandcharacterstoberedrawnandanimatedamongmccaysmostnotedfilmsarelittlenemo1911gertiethedinosaur1914andthesinkingofthelusitania1918
theproductionofanimatedshortfilmstypicallyreferredtoascartoonsbecameanindustryofitsownduringthe1910sandcartoonshortswereproducedtobeshowninmovietheatersthemostsuccessfulearlyanimationproducerwasjohnrandolphbraywhoalongwithanimatorearlhurdpatentedthecelanimationprocesswhichdominatedtheanimationindustryfortherestofthedecade
traditionalanimationalsocalledcelanimationorhanddrawnanimationwastheprocessusedformostanimatedfilmsofthe20thcenturytheindividualframesofatraditionallyanimatedfilmarephotographsofdrawingswhicharefirstdrawnonpapertocreatetheillusionofmovementeachdrawingdiffersslightlyfromtheonebeforeittheanimatorsdrawingsaretracedorphotocopiedontotransparentacetatesheetscalledcelswhicharefilledinwithpaintsinassignedcolorsortonesonthesideoppositethelinedrawingsthecompletedcharactercelsarephotographedonebyoneontomotionpicturefilmagainstapaintedbackgroundbyarostrumcamera
thetraditionalcelanimationprocessbecameobsoletebythebeginningofthe21stcenturytodayanimatorsdrawingsandthebackgroundsareeitherscannedintoordrawndirectlyintoacomputersystemvarioussoftwareprogramsareusedtocolorthedrawingsandsimulatecameramovementandeffectsthefinalanimatedpieceisoutputtooneofseveraldeliverymediaincludingtraditional35mmfilmandnewermediasuchasdigitalvideothelookoftraditionalcelanimationisstillpreservedandthecharacteranimatorsworkhasremainedessentiallythesameoverthepast70yearssomeanimationproducershaveusedthetermtradigitaltodescribecelanimationwhichmakesextensiveuseofcomputertechnology
examplesoftraditionallyanimatedfeaturefilmsincludepinocchiounitedstates1940animalfarmunitedkingdom1954andakirajapan1988traditionalanimatedfilmswhichwereproducedwiththeaidofcomputertechnologyincludethelionkingus1994sentochihironokamikakushispiritedawayjapan2001andlestriplettesdebelleville2003
stopmotionanimationisusedtodescribeanimationcreatedbyphysicallymanipulatingrealworldobjectsandphotographingthemoneframeoffilmatatimetocreatetheillusionofmovementtherearemanydifferenttypesofstopmotionanimationusuallynamedafterthetypeofmediausedtocreatetheanimationcomputersoftwareiswidelyavailabletocreatethistypeofanimation
2danimationfiguresarecreatedandoreditedonthecomputerusing2dbitmapgraphicsorcreatedandeditedusing2dvectorgraphicsthisincludesautomatedcomputerizedversionsoftraditionalanimationtechniquessuchasofinterpolatedmorphingonionskinningandinterpolatedrotoscoping
2danimationhasmanyapplicationsincludinganalogcomputeranimationflashanimationandpowerpointanimationcinemagraphsarestillphotographsintheformofananimatedgiffileofwhichpartisanimated
3danimationisdigitallymodeledandmanipulatedbyananimatorinordertomanipulateameshitisgivenadigitalskeletalstructurethatcanbeusedtocontrolthemeshthisprocessiscalledriggingvariousothertechniquescanbeappliedsuchasmathematicalfunctionsexgravityparticlesimulationssimulatedfurorhaireffectssuchasfireandwaterandtheuseofmotioncapturetonamebutafewthesetechniquesfallunderthecategoryof3ddynamicswellmade3danimationscanbedifficulttodistinguishfromliveactionandarecommonlyusedasvisualeffectsforrecentmoviestoystory1995usaisthefirstfeaturelengthfilmtobecreatedandrenderedentirelyusing3dgraphics
2danimationtechniquestendtofocusonimagemanipulationwhile3dtechniquesusuallybuildvirtualworldsinwhichcharactersandobjectsmoveandinteract3danimationcancreateimagesthatseemrealtotheviewer
apolloatticionicandhomericgreekἀπόλλωνapollōngenἀπόλλωνοςdoricἀπέλλωνapellōnarcadocypriotἀπείλωνapeilōnaeolicἄπλουνaplounisoneofthemostimportantanddiverseoftheolympiandeitiesingreekandromanmythologytheidealofthekourosabeardlessathleticyouthapollohasbeenvariouslyrecognizedasagodoflightandthesuntruthandprophecymedicinehealingplaguemusicpoetryartsarcheryandmoreapolloisthesonofzeusandletoandhasatwinsisterthechastehuntressartemisapolloisknowningreekinfluencedetruscanmythologyasapuluapollowasworshipedinbothancientgreekandromanreligionandinthemoderngrecoromanneopaganism
asthepatronofdelphipythianapolloapollowasanoraculargodthepropheticdeityofthedelphicoraclemedicineandhealingwereassociatedwithapollowhetherthroughthegodhimselformediatedthroughhissonasclepiusyetapollowasalsoseenasagodwhocouldbringillhealthanddeadlyplagueamongstthegodscustodialchargesapollobecameassociatedwithdominionovercolonistsandasthepatrondefenderofherdsandflocksastheleaderofthemusesapollonmusegetesanddirectoroftheirchoirapollofunctionedasthepatrongodofmusicandpoetryhermescreatedthelyreforhimandtheinstrumentbecameacommonattributeofapollohymnssungtoapollowerecalledpaeans
inhellenistictimesespeciallyduringthe3rdcenturybceasapollohelioshebecameidentifiedamonggreekswithheliostitangodofthesunandhissisterartemissimilarlyequatedwithselenetitangoddessofthemooninlatintextsontheotherhandjosephfontenrosedeclaredhimselfunabletofindanyconflationofapollowithsolamongtheaugustanpoetsofthe1stcenturynotevenintheconjurationsofaeneasandlatinusinaeneidxii161215apolloandheliossolremainedseparatebeingsinliteraryandmythologicaltextsuntilthe3rdcenturyce
theetymologyofapolloisuncertainthespellingἀπόλλωνhadalmostsupersededallotherformsbythebeginningofthecommonerabutthedoricformαπέλλωνismorearchaicderivedfromanearlierαπέλjωνthenameiscertainlycognatewiththedoricmonthnameαπέλλαιοςandthedoricfestivalαπελλαι
severalinstancesofpopularetymologyareattestedfromancientauthorsthusthegreeksmostoftenassociatedapollosnamewiththegreekverbἀπόλλυμιapollymitodestroyplatoincratylusconnectsthenamewithapolysisredeemwithapolousispurificationandwithaplounsimpleinparticularinreferencetothethessalianformofthenameandfinallywithaeiballonevershootinghesychiusconnectsthenameapollowiththedoricαπέλλαapellawhichmeansassemblysothatapollowouldbethegodofpoliticallifeandhealsogivestheexplanationσηκόςsekosfoldinwhichcaseapollowouldbethegodofflocksandherds
followingthetraditionoftheseancientgreekfolketymologiesinthedoricdialectthewordoriginallymeantwallfencefromanimalsandlaterassemblywithintheagoraintheancientmacedonianlanguagepellameansstoneandsometoponymsarederivedfromthiswordpellacapitalofancientmacedoniapellinipallini
anumberofnongreeketymologieshavebeensuggestedforthenametheformapaliunasisattestedasagodofwilusainatreatybetweenalaksanduofwilusaandthehittitegreatkingmuwatalliiica1280bcealaksanducouldbeparisalexanderofilionwhosenameisgreekthehittitetestimonyreflectsanearlyformwhichmayalsobesurmisedfromcomparisonofcypriotαπειλωνwithdoricαπελλωνaluwianetymologysuggestedforapaliunasmakesapollotheoneofentrapmentperhapsinthesenseofhunter
amongtheproposedetymologiesisthehurrianandhittitedivinityapluwhowaswidelyinvokedduringtheplagueyearsapluitissuggestedcomesfromtheakkadianapluenlilmeaningthesonofenlilatitlethatwasgiventothegodnergalwhowaslinkedtoshamashbabyloniangodofthesun
apollolikeothergreekdeitieshadanumberofepithetsappliedtohimreflectingthevarietyofrolesdutiesandaspectsascribedtothegodhoweverwhileapollohasagreatnumberofappellationsingreekmythonlyafewoccurinlatinliteraturechiefamongthemphoebusφοίβοςphoibosliterallyradiantwhichwasverycommonlyusedbyboththegreeksandromansinapollosroleasthegodoflight
assungodandgodoflightapollowasalsoknownbytheepithetsaegletesαἰγλήτηςaiglētēsfromαἴγληlightofthesunheliusἥλιοςheliosliterallysunphanaeusφαναῖοςphanaiosliterallygivingorbringinglightandlyceusλύκειοςlukeiosfromprotogreekλύκηlightthemeaningoftheepithetlyceuslaterbecameassociatedapollosmotherletowhowasthepatrongoddesoflyciaλυκίαandwhowasidentifiedwiththewolfλύκοςearninghimtheepithetslycegenesλυκηγενήςlukēgenēsliterallybornofawolforbornoflyciaandlycoctonusλυκοκτόνοςlukoktonosfromλύκοςwolfandκτείνεινtokillasgodofthesuntheromansreferredtoapolloassolliterallysuninlatin
inassociationwithhisbirthplacemountcynthusontheislandofdelosapollowascalledcynthiusκύνθιοςkunthiosliterallycynthiancynthogenesκύνθογενηςkunthogenēsliterallybornofcynthusanddeliusδήλιοςdeliosliterallydelianasartemisstwinapollohadtheepithetdidymaeusδιδυμαιοςdidumaiosfromδίδυμοςtwin
asaprotectorandfounderapollohadtheepithetsalexicacusἀλεξίκακοςalexikakosliterallywardingoffevilapotropaeusἀποτρόπαιοςapotropaiosfromὰποτρέπεινtoavertandepicuriusἐπικούριοςepikouriosfromἐπικουρέεινtoaidandarchegetesἀρχηγέτηςarkhēgetēsliterallyfounderclariusκλάριοςklāriosfromdoricκλάροςallottedlotandgenetorγενέτωρgenetōrliterallyancestortotheromanshewasknowninthiscapacityasaverruncusfromlatināverruncaretoaverthewasalsocalledagyieusἀγυιεύςaguīeusfromὰγυιάstreetforhisroleinprotectingroadsandhomesandasnomiusνόμιοςnomiosliterallypastoralandnymphegetesνυμφηγέτηςnumphēgetēsfromνύμφηnymphandἡγέτηςleaderinhisroleasaprotectorofshepherdsandpastorallife